{"type":"script","doc_desc":{"producers":[{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","abbr":"DIME","affiliation":"World Bank - Development Impact Department","role":"Verification and preparation of metadata"}],"prod_date":"2025-04-03","version":"1"},"project_desc":{"authoring_entity":[{"name":"Franziska Ohnsorge","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"fohnsorge@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Richard Rogerson","affiliation":"Princeton School of Public and International Affairs","email":" rdr@princeton.edu"},{"name":"Zoe Leiyu Xie","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"lxie@worldbank.org"}],"title_statement":{"title":"Reproducibility package for Jobless Development","idno":"RR_WLD_2025_286"},"data_statement":"All data is temporarily embargoed by the authors (expected to be made public in the future).","software":[{"name":"Stata","version":"18 MP"}],"scripts":[{"title":"Reproducibility package for Jobless Development","date":"2025-04","notes":"This reproducibility package, including all data and code, is currently under a temporary embargo and will be published at a later date. Computational reproducibility verified by Development Impact (DIME) Analytics team, World Bank.","file_name":"RR_WLD_2025_286","zip_package":"RR_WLD_2025_286.zip","dependencies":"All dependencies are stored in the ado folder. "}],"repository_uri":[{"name":"Reproducible Research Repository (World Bank)","uri":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org"}],"production_date":"2025-04","abstract":"Analyses of GDP per capita differences across countries focus almost exclusively on differences in productivity. We show that there are also large differences in medium-run dynamics in the employment-to-population ratio. We find a general tendency for productivity growth to be negatively correlated with changes in the employment to population ratio for a large sample of EMDEs. We coin the term jobless development to describe this phenomenon. We also show that there are large differences in the steady state levels of the employment to population ratios that countries are converging to. There are also countries that experience substantial increases in their employment-to-population ratio during the development process. We use a two-stage procedure to study this issue in a large sample of EMDEs. In the first stage, we estimate differences in steady-state employment ratios across countries. In the second stage, we document which institutional and policy factors are correlated with steady-state employment ratios. We find particularly large differences across countries in steady-state employment ratios for women. Fewer legal protections of women\u2019s rights are associated with lower steady-state employment ratios for women, without an offsetting positive effect for men.","geographic_units":[{"code":"WLD","name":"World","type":"Region"}],"keywords":[{"name":"Employment"},{"name":" Emerging And Developing Countries"},{"name":" Structural Transformation"},{"name":" Female Labor Force Participation"}],"topics":[{"id":"J11","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts","parent_id":"J1"},{"id":" J16","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Economics of Gender \u2022 Non-labor Discrimination","parent_id":"J1"},{"id":" J21","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure","parent_id":"J2"},{"id":" F66","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Labor","parent_id":"F6"},{"id":" O41","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models","parent_id":"O4"},{"id":" O47","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Empirical Studies of Economic Growth \u2022 Aggregate Productivity \u2022 Cross-Country Output Convergence","parent_id":"O4"}],"output":[{"type":"World Bank Policy Research Working Papers","description":"Policy Research Working Papers (PRWP)","title":"Jobless Development","authors":"Franziska Ohnsorge , Richard Rogerson, and Zoe Leiyu Xie"}],"language":[{"name":"English","code":"EN"}],"technology_requirements":"~ 15minutes","disclaimer":"The materials in the reproducibility packages are distributed as they were prepared by the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development\/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this event do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the materials included in the reproducibility package.","license":[{"name":"Modified BSD3","uri":"https:\/\/opensource.org\/license\/bsd-3-clause\/"}],"contacts":[{"name":"Zoe Leiyu Xie","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"lxie@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"reproducibility@worldbank.org"}],"datasets":[{"name":"International Labor Organization (ILOSTAT)","note":"Source: International Labor Organization (ILOSTAT).\nIndicators: Employment by sex and age -- ILO modelled estimates, Nov. 2022 (thousands), Employment by sex and age (thousands), Informal employment rate by sex and age (%), Informal employment rate by sex and economic activity (%), Labour force by sex and age (thousands), Share of employment outside the formal sector by sex and age (%), Share of employment outside the formal sector by sex and economic activity (%), Population by sex and age -- UN estimates and projections, July 2022 (thousands), Employment by sex, age and economic activity (thousands), Employment by sex, economic activity and education (thousands), Employment by sex and economic activity -- ILO modelled estimates, Nov. 2022 (thousands), Employment by sex and economic activity (thousands), Working-age population by sex and age (thousands).\nFile names: 0_ILOSTAT Employment Model.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Employment Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Informal Rate Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Informal Sector Rate Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Labor Force Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Non-Formal Rate Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Non-Formal Sector Rate Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Population by Age UN.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Sector Age Employment Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Sector Educ Employment Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Sector Employment Model.csv, 0_ILOSTAT Sector Employment Survey.csv, 0_ILOSTAT WAP Survey.csv\nLocated at: InputData\/RawData. Please see more information in the README file. ","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/rights-and-permissions#data","uri":"https:\/\/rshiny.ilo.org\/index.html","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package"},{"name":"World Development Indicators","note":"Source: World Bank. \nLocated at: InputData\/RawData\nFile names: 1_WDI_AgriRGVA.xls, 1_WDI_GDPpc.xls, 1_WDI_InduRGVA.xls, 1_WDI_RGDP.xls, 1_WDI_RGVA.xls, 1_WDI_ServRGVA.xls\nIndicators: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (constant 2015 US$); GDP per capita (constant 2015 US$); Industry (including construction), value added (constant 2015 US$); GDP (constant 2015 US$); Gross value added at basic prices (GVA) (constant 2015 US$); Services, value added (constant 2015 US$)\n\nFile name: LFS_WDI.xlsx.\nIndicators: Labor force, total, Labor force participation rate, male (% of male population ages 15+) (national estimate), Labor force with advanced education (% of total working-age population with advanced education), Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+) (national estimate), Labor force with advanced education, female (% of female working-age population with advanced education), Labor force with advanced education, male (% of male working-age population with advanced education), Labor force with basic education (% of total working-age population with basic education), Labor force with basic education, female (% of female working-age population with basic education), Labor force with basic education, male (% of male working-age population with basic education), Labor force with intermediate education (% of total working-age population with intermediate education), Labor force with intermediate education, female (% of female working-age population with intermediate education), Labor force with intermediate education, male (% of male working-age population with intermediate education), Labor force, female (% of total labor force), Unemployment with advanced education (% of total labor force with advanced education), Unemployment with advanced education, female (% of female labor force with advanced education), Unemployment with advanced education, male (% of male labor force with advanced education), Unemployment with basic education (% of total labor force with basic education), Unemployment with basic education, female (% of female labor force with basic education), Unemployment with basic education, male (% of male labor force with basic education), Unemployment with intermediate education (% of total labor force with intermediate education), Unemployment with intermediate education, female (% of female labor force with intermediate education), Unemployment with intermediate education, male (% of male labor force with intermediate education), Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) (national estimate), Unemployment, male (% of male labor force) (national estimate), Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (national estimate).\n\nLocated at: InputData\/RawControlVars\nFile name: WAP_wdi.dta\nIndicators: Population, total; Population, male; Population, female; Population ages 15-64 (% of total population);  Population ages 15-64 (% of total population), female; Population ages 15-64 (% of total population), male.\n","license_uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses#cc-by","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License","uri":"https:\/\/databank.worldbank.org\/source\/world-development-indicators"},{"note":"Source: World Bank. 2024. Women, Business and the Law 2024. Washington, DC: World Bank.\nFile name: WBL-1971-2023-Dataset.xlsx.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawControlVars","name":"Women, Business and the Law Data","uri":"https:\/\/wbl.worldbank.org\/en\/wbl-data","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/about\/legal\/terms-of-use-for-datasets","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package"},{"note":"Source: Timmer, M. P., de Vries, G. J., & de Vries, K. (2015). \u201cPatterns of Structural Change in Developing Countries.\u201d . In J. Weiss, & M. Tribe (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Industry and Development. (pp. 65-83). Routledge.\nFile name: GGDC10Sector_jan15.xlsx\nLocated at:  InputData\/RawData","name":"Groningen Growth and Development Centre (GGDC 10-Sector Database)","uri":"https:\/\/www.rug.nl\/ggdc\/structuralchange\/previous-sector-database\/10-sector-2014","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package"},{"name":"Informal Economy Database","uri":"https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/research\/brief\/informal-economy-database","note":"Source: Elgin, C., M. A. Kose, F. Ohnsorge, and S. Yu. 2021. \u201cUnderstanding Informality.\u201d CERP Discussion Paper 16497, Centre for Economic Policy Research, London. \nFile name: informal-economy-database.xlsx.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawData","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License","license_uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses#cc-by","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package"},{"name":"Bento and Restuccia (2018)","note":"Source: Bento, Pedro, and Diego Restuccia. 2018. \"On Average Establishment Size across Sectors and Countries.\" National Bureau of Economic Research. Working Paper Series 24968.\nFile name: Data_BRAES_Final.dta.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawControlVars. Data can be downloaded from the provided link. ","uri":"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1Ohmp-ZN94mG98kPvrhdqgoMhuOAaESSE\/view","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package"},{"name":"Penn World Table","note":"Source: Feenstra, Robert C., Robert Inklaar and Marcel P. Timmer (2015), \"The Next Generation of the Penn World Table\" American Economic Review, 105(10), 3150-3182, available for download at www.ggdc.net\/pwt.\nFile name: PennTablepwt1001.xlsx.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawData","uri":"https:\/\/www.rug.nl\/ggdc\/productivity\/pwt\/?lang=en","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package","license_uri":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"uri":"https:\/\/population.un.org\/wpp\/downloads?folder=Archive&group=Standard%20Projections","name":" United Nations World Population Prospects 2022","note":"Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022). World Population Prospects 2022, Online Edition.\nFile name: UNPopulationByAgeCompletedataset.xlsx.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawData","license":"Creative Commons license CC BY 3.0 IGO","license_uri":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/igo\/","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package"},{"uri":"https:\/\/www.wider.unu.edu\/database\/etd-economic-transformation-database","name":"Economic Transformation Database","note":"Source: Kruse, H., E. Mensah, K. Sen, and G. J. de Vries (2022). \u201cA manufacturing renaissance? Industrialization trends in the developing world\u201d, IMF Economic Review DOI: 10.1057\/s41308-022-00183-7.\nFile name: UNUWider etd-release2021.xlsx.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawData","license":"Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike 3.0 IGO","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.wider.unu.edu\/about\/copyright","access_type":"Publicly available and will be included in the package"},{"name":"World Bank Enterprise Survey (WBES)","note":"Source:  World Bank Enterprise Surveys, www.enterprisesurveys.org\nWorld Bank Enterprise Surveys (WBES) are nationally representative firm-level surveys, with top managers and owners of businesses interviewed using a globally comparable questionnaire that covers a broad range of business environment topics as well as firms\u2019 characteristics and performance measures. The dataset was last accessed by the authors in November 2024. Since the data is updated periodically, the latest version may differ from the one used in the study. \nFile names: ES-Indicators-Database-Global-Methodology_November_20_2023.dta and New_Comprehensive_November_20_2023.dta.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawControlVars. The data can be accessed after creating an account and following the instructions in the README.","access_type":"Publicly available but does not allow redistribution. It will not be available in the package.","uri":"https:\/\/login.enterprisesurveys.org\/content\/sites\/financeandprivatesector\/en\/library\/combineddata.html"},{"name":"Financial Access Survey","note":"Source: International Monetary Fund. Financial Access Survey (FAS), https:\/\/data.imf.org\/en\/datasets\/IMF.STA:FAS. \nFile name: IMF_FAS.xlsx\nLocated at: InputData\/RawControlVars. Data can be accessed after creating an account and following the instructions in the README.","uri":"https:\/\/data.imf.org\/?sk=e5dcab7e-a5ca-4892-a6ea-598b5463a34c&sid=1460043522778","access_type":"Publicly available but does not allow redistribution. It will not be available in the package."},{"uri":"https:\/\/efotw.org\/economic-freedom\/dataset?geozone=world&page=dataset&min-year=2&max-year=0&filter=0","note":"Source: Data from Economic Freedom of the World: 2024 Annual Report. Copyright 2024, The Fraser Institute. All rights reserved.\nFile name: economic-freedom-of-the-world-2023-master-index-data-for-researchers-iso.xlsx.\nLocated at: InputData\/RawControlVars. Data can be accessed from the link provided.","access_type":"Publicly available but does not allow redistribution. It will not be available in the package.","name":" Economic Freedom of the World"},{"note":"File created by the authors. Sources: Variable \"ifscode\": IMF World Economic Outlook (https:\/\/www.imf.org\/external\/pubs\/ft\/weo\/2022\/02\/weodata\/co.pdf). Variables \"Market\" and \"Commodityexport\": Table 1.2 of Global Economic Prospects (e.g., the Jan 2024 issue) for EMDE and commodity exporter classifications. Variable \"Region\": World Bank\u2019s classification of geographic region (https:\/\/datahelpdesk.worldbank.org\/knowledgebase\/articles\/378834-how-does-the-world-bank-classify-countries). Variable \"Smallstates\": World Bank\u2019s list of small states (e.g., https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/news\/statement\/2024\/06\/26\/small-states-and-small-states-forum-members). Variable \"wbcode\": IBAN Alpha-3 code (https:\/\/www.iban.com\/country-codes).\nFile name: classification.dta.\nLocated at: InputData\/IntermData.\n","name":"Classification Data","access_type":"Data will be included in the package"},{"name":"Gross Domestic Product data","note":"Source: Internal database provided by DECPG, based on the World Bank\u2019s Global Economic Prospects, the IMF\u2019s World Economic Outlook, World Development Indicators, and Haver Analytics.\nThe original dataset used to construct this data was provided directly to the authors by DECPG. This dataset is restricted and not accessible through standard public channels. However, the intermediate data required to run the replication code will be included in the package once it is published.\nFile name: gdp.dta.\nLocation: InputData\/IntermData","access_type":"Data will be included in the package"}],"technology_environment":"Paper exhibits were reproduced in a computer with the following specifications:\n\u2022 OS: Windows 10 Enterprise\n\u2022 Processor: Intel(R) Xeon(R) Gold 6226R CPU @ 2.90GHz 2.90 GHz (2 processors)\n\u2022 Memory available: 32 GB\n\u2022 Software version: Stata version 18 MP","reproduction_instructions":"The replication package is currently under a **temporary embargo**. The data and code required to reproduce the results are not yet publicly available but are expected to be released in the coming months.\n\nOnce the embargo is lifted and the data and code are published, users should follow these steps to replicate the results:\n1. **Download the Required Data and Code:**  After the materials are made public, download the dataset(s) as indicated in the **Datasets** section and place them in the appropriate folder within the project directory.\n2. **Run the Package:**  \n   To execute the replication code:\n   - Open the Stata do-file named `main`.\n   - On **line 9**, update the global path to reflect the location of the replication package on your machine.\n   - Run the `main` file.\n   >  **Important:** Do not delete the file FiguresTables. This Excel file contains embedded calculations that depend on the outputs generated by the code. Deleting it will result in the outputs not reproducing correctly.\nWe will update this page once the embargo is lifted and the replication materials are made publicly accessible.\n"},"tags":[{"tag":"DOI"},{"tag":"Restricted code"},{"tag":"Restricted data"}],"schematype":"script"}