{"type":"script","doc_desc":{"producers":[{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","abbr":"DECDI","affiliation":"World Bank - Development Impact Department","role":"Verification and preparation of metadata"}],"prod_date":"2025-11-12","version":"1"},"project_desc":{"authoring_entity":[{"name":"Youngkwang Jeon","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"yjeon@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Nukba Zia","affiliation":"Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health","email":"nukhba.zia@jhu.edu"},{"name":"Daniel Mont","affiliation":"Center for Inclusive Policy","email":"daniel.mont@inclusive-policy.org"},{"name":"Stuart Johnson","affiliation":"Cambridge Education","email":"Stuart.Johnson@mottmac.com"},{"name":"Shabani Abeid","affiliation":"Cambridge Education; Action on Disability and Development (ADD) International","email":"shabani.abeid@add-tanzania.org"},{"name":"Fredrick Manang","affiliation":"University of Dodoma","email":"fmanang@gmail.com"},{"name":"Sarena Ho","affiliation":"Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health","email":"sarena.ho@gmail.com"},{"name":"Juliette Myers","affiliation":"Cambridge Education","email":"myersjuliette@gmail.com"},{"name":"Richard Nzoka","affiliation":"Cambridge Education","email":"richard.nzoka@camb-ed.com"},{"name":"Nurat Karamagi","affiliation":"Cambridge Education","email":"nurat.karamagi@camb-ed.com"},{"name":"Godfrey Mulongo","affiliation":"Cambridge Education","email":"Godfrey.Mulongo@camb-ed.com"},{"name":"Aidan Coville","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"acoville@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Guadalupe Bedoya","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"gbedoya@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Hee Kwon Seo","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"hseo@worldbank.org"}],"title_statement":{"title":"Reproducibility package for Child-Direct Disability Screening in Tanzanian Primary Schools: Estimating Administrative Undercounts and Implications for Disability Prevalence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries","idno":"RR_TZA_2025_476"},"data_statement":"Some data is restricted and has not been included in the reproducibility package. For more details, please refer to the README file.","software":[{"name":"Stata","version":"18 MP"}],"scripts":[{"title":"Reproducibility package for Child-Direct Disability Screening in Tanzanian Primary Schools: Estimating Administrative Undercounts and Implications for Disability Prevalence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries","date":"2025-11","notes":"Computational reproducibility verified by Development Impact (DECDI) Analytics team, World Bank.","instructions":"See README in reproducibility package.","file_name":"RR_TZA_2025_476","zip_package":"RR_TZA_2025_476.zip","dependencies":"Stata dependencies are listed in the ado folder."}],"repository_uri":[{"name":"Reproducible Research Repository (World Bank)","uri":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org"}],"production_date":"2025-11-12","abstract":"Policy for children in low- and middle-income countries depends on knowing who they are and what they need. For children with disabilities, that information is limited, costly to collect, and often understated in existing data systems. Administrative school records in Tanzania report disability prevalence of 0.56%\u2014an order of magnitude below caregiver reported household surveys across 51 LMICs, which suggest rates near 14%. Caregiver surveys provide a broader picture but are expensive to implement at scale, limiting their use for policy.\n\nWe evaluate an alternative: administering the Child Functioning Module (CFM) by directly asking primary school children in classrooms across nine regions of Tanzania. We benchmark these child-direct reports (3,246 children) against caregiver reports from UNICEF MICS6 (483,164 children, 51 countries), Tanzania\u2019s Annual School Census, and optometrist-led vision screening. Overall prevalence and severity are similar to caregiver reports, but child-direct data identify substantially higher rates of difficulties in vision, hearing, communication, and social interaction. For vision and hearing, available medical screening evidence from Tanzania and other settings likewise indicates higher rates than caregiver reports. Child-direct estimates exceed administrative records by a factor of 13.2 (95% CI: 10.3\u201316.2). We therefore estimate a lower-bound prevalence of 14.4% (95% CI: 14.1\u201314.7) across 51 LMICs.\n\nThese findings suggest that school-based, child-direct screening is a feasible way to improve identification, supporting more effective use of development budgets for classroom accommodations, teacher deployment, and examination arrangements.","geographic_units":[{"name":"Tanzania","code":"TZA"}],"keywords":[{"name":"Child And Adolescent Health"},{"name":"Disability"},{"name":"Children With Disabilities"},{"name":"Distributional Comparison"},{"name":"Standardized Identification And Assessment"},{"name":"Child Functioning Module (Cfm)"}],"output":[{"type":"Working Paper","description":"Policy Research Working Papers (PRWP)","title":"Child-Direct Disability Screening in Tanzanian Primary Schools: Estimating Administrative Undercounts and Implications for Disability Prevalence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries"}],"language":[{"name":"English","code":"EN"}],"disclaimer":"The materials in the reproducibility packages are distributed as they were prepared by the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development\/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this event do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the materials included in the reproducibility package.","license":[{"name":"Modified BSD3","uri":"https:\/\/opensource.org\/license\/bsd-3-clause\/"}],"contacts":[{"name":"Youngkwang Jeon","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"yjeon@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"reproducibility@worldbank.org"}],"datasets":[{"name":"Tanzania Basic Education Data ","uri":"http:\/\/old.tamisemi.go.tz\/singleministers\/basic_education_data_2023","citation":"Republic of Tanzania, President\u2019s Office \u2013 Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG). (2022). Basic Education Statistics 2022. Administrative data, accessed in 2024.","license":"Not specified. Data is publicly accessible via direct download.","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","note":"These files contain administrative education statistics compiled by the Republic of Tanzania\u2019s President\u2019s Office \u2013 Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG). The data cover enrollment by grade and education stage based on the 2022 Basic Education Statistics. The datasets are typically available via the PO-RALG website; however, at the time of access, the BEST dataset website was temporarily unavailable. \nFiles: Raw\/IdentificationPilotMap\/Consolidated_Primary_EnrolmentbyGrade_PTR_2023_PSLE2022.xlsx; Raw\/Best\/1. BEST 2022 Regional Data Final.xlsx\n"},{"name":"Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS)","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/legal","uri":"https:\/\/mics.unicef.org\/surveys","access_type":"Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and is not included in the reproducibility package.","note":"The analysis uses country-level SPSS datasets (stored in folders xxx MICS6 SPSS Datasets), where xxx corresponds to each of the 51 countries included in the sample. Data are from MICS Round 6 surveys, conducted between 2017 and 2023 (with most data collected in 2018\u20132019). The datasets are available for registered users from the UNICEF MICS website (https:\/\/mics.unicef.or) by filtering on Round: MICS6, Data type: MICS, and Status: Completed.","citation":"UNICEF. (2017\u20132023). Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), Round 6 [Data set]. Country-level SPSS files. United Nations Children\u2019s Fund. Available from https:\/\/mics.unicef.org"},{"name":"Population and GDP data","note":"Data compiled by the authors. Population totals for ages 5\u201317 (total_5to17) and 6\u201313 (total_6to13) correspond to 2023 estimates from the UN Population Division. GDP per capita (gdp_p_c) reflects 2023 values from the World Bank\u2019s World Development Indicators, with exceptions for the State of Palestine (2023) and Cuba (2022), which are sourced from Trading Economics. Data were accessed in 2024.\nFiles: UnicefMics\/MICS_population.xlsx","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","citation":"1. World Bank. 2025. \"World Development Indicators\" [Data set]. Indicator accessed: GDP per capita in 2023l.  Accessed in 2024. https:\/\/databank.worldbank.org\/source\/world-development-indicators. 2. Trading Economics. (2023). GDP per capita by country [Data set]. https:\/\/tradingeconomics.com\/country-list\/gdp?continent=world. 3. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2024). World Population Prospects [Data set]. https:\/\/population.un.org\/dataportal\/"},{"name":"Children Enrolled in Public Primary Schools in Shule Bora (SB) Tanzania Regions Survey","note":"Dates accessed or survey conducted: 20 February 2023 \u2013 6 March 2023. This dataset covers students enrolled in public primary schools across nine Tanzanian regions under the Shule Bora program (Dodoma, Katavi, Kigoma, Mara, Pwani, Rukwa, Simiyu, Singida, and Tanga). \nFiles: Raw\/ShuleBoraInclusionBaseline\/Student Survey.dta\n","access_type":"Data are temporarily embargoed by the authors. Once the embargo is lifted, the datasets will be made available through the World Bank Microdata Library.","citation":"Government of Tanzania, Shule Bora Program, and DataVision International Ltd. (2023). Shule Bora Baseline Student Survey (SB Tanzania). Forthcoming in World Bank Microdata Library."},{"name":"Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) \/ Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA)","note":"Dates accessed or survey conducted: 20 February 2023 \u2013 6 March 2023. This dataset includes the results of EGRA and EGMA tests conducted as part of the Shule Bora baseline in 2023. Files: Raw\/ShuleBoraCambEdBaseline\/EGRA EGMA Assessment.dta\n","citation":"Government of Tanzania, Shule Bora Program, and DataVision International Ltd. (2023). Shule Bora Baseline EGRA\/EGMA Assessment (SB Tanzania). Forthcoming in World Bank Microdata Library.","access_type":"Data are temporarily embargoed by the authors. Once the embargo is lifted, the datasets will be made available through the World Bank Microdata Library."},{"name":"Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE) test results 2018 \u2013 2020","note":"Dates accessed or survey conducted: Administered annually during the first week of November; dataset covers examination years 2018\u20132020. \nFiles: IdentificationPilotMap\/CSEEictRegions18-20.dta","citation":"United Republic of Tanzania, National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA). Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE), 2018\u20132020. Dataset: CSEEtiCtRegions18\u201320.dta.","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners\/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package."},{"name":"Shule Bora Baseline List of Schools: Government Primary Schools","note":"List of government primary schools by location and type of special needs alignment used as the baseline school roster for the Shule Bora program. Dates accessed or survey conducted: Data reflect school information as of 31 March 2022 and were entered into the ASC system at the school level by heads of schools.\nFiles: IdentificationPilotMap\/SB baseline list of schools.xlsx","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners\/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","citation":"United Republic of Tanzania, President\u2019s Office \u2013 Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG). Annual School Census (ASC), 2022. Shule Bora Baseline List of Schools (Primary_Gov), unpublished administrative data."},{"name":"List of Schools with Students with Special Needs by Type of Disability","note":"Administrative dataset containing government disability statistics on the number of children with disabilities (CWDs) enrolled in government primary schools across nine regions, disaggregated by type of disability. The data are not publicly available and are used in the Shule Bora program to identify and classify inclusive schools for sampling, weighting, and analytical purposes. Dates accessed or survey conducted: Collected by PO-RALG directly from schools and compiled at the regional level; specific collection dates are not publicly documented.\nFiles: IdentificationPilotMap\/SB Inclusive schools in 9 regions v3.xlsx\n","citation":"United Republic of Tanzania, President\u2019s Office \u2013 Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG). Administrative data on Children with Disabilities in Primary Schools, nine regions. Shule Bora Inclusive Schools in 9 Regions dataset, unpublished administrative data.","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners\/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package."},{"name":"VisionCare: School Screening Overall Statistics (2025)","note":"Data contains information on first and second vision screenings, expected and actual follow-up screenings, and provision of spectacles. These data were shared directly by the implementing partner (Vision Care Tanzania) and are available upon request, subject to approval from both Vision Care Tanzania and the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA). Accessed: 2025-11-21. Files: Raw\/VisionCare\/School screening overall statistics (2025) _WB sharing data.xlsx","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners\/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","uri":"https:\/\/vcs2020.org\/","citation":"Vision Care Tanzania. 2025. \"School Screening Overall Statistics\" [dataset]. https:\/\/vcs2020.org\/. Accessed November 2025."},{"note":"Data accessed on March 24, 2026. The file Figure1Data.xlsx contains information on reading speed (words per minute) and print size (logMAR), digitized by the authors from Figure 1 of the source article using PlotDigitizer. The underlying figure is publicly available from the article repository. File location: Raw\/VisualAcuity\/Figure1Data.xlsx\n","name":"Baseline MNREAD Measures for Normally Sighted Subjects","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License","license_uri":"https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/about\/copyright\/","uri":"https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC4961000\/","citation":"Calabr\u00e8se A, Cheong AM, Cheung SH, He Y, Kwon M, Mansfield JS, Subramanian A, Yu D, Legge GE. Baseline MNREAD Measures for Normally Sighted Subjects From Childhood to Old Age. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016 Jul 1;57(8):3836-43. doi: 10.1167\/iovs.16-19580. PMID: 27442222; PMCID: PMC4961000"},{"note":"Data accessed in September 2024. Two datasets obtained from the Government of Tanzania through a direct institutional contact via email, associated with the Ministry of Education data platform (https:\/\/esmis.moe.go.tz\/). (1) Pupils with Disabilities in Primary Schools (accessed September 27, 2024): contains school-level information including Region, Council, Ward, School, Reg. No., Ownership, and counts of children with disabilities disaggregated by sex and disability type (Albino, Deaf, Hard of Hearing, Deaf-Blind, Blind, Low Vision, Physical Impairment, Autism, Intellectual Impairment, and Multi-Impairment). Files: Raw\/IdentificationPilotMap\/Pupils with Disabilities in Primary Schools, 2024_2.xlsx. (2) Consolidated Primary Education Data (accessed September 30, 2024): contains school-level information including Region, Council, Ward, School, Reg. No., NECTA Centre No., Ownership, Latitude, Longitude, and student enrollment counts by grade and sex for Standard I through Standard VII, as well as total boys and girls. Files: Raw\/IdentificationPilotMap\/Consolidated Primary Education Data, 2024.xlsx. Access requires approval from the Government of Tanzania.\n","name":"Tanzania  Primary Education Administrative Data","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","uri":"https:\/\/esmis.moe.go.tz\/","citation":"Government of Tanzania, Ministry of Education. 2024. \"Tanzania  Primary Education Administrative Data\" [dataset]. Unpublished data shared directly by institutional contact. Accessed September 2024."}],"reproduction_instructions":"1. **Secure Access to Data:** Access the datasets not included in the package. See subsection Datasets for more details.\n2. **Download and Place Data:** Once the data is accessed, users should place it in the appropriate folder.\n3. **Run the Package:** After placing the data in the folder, run the files in the order:\n      - Update the globals in line 59-60 of the do-file \"MasterDo\" to your folder's location and run the do-file.\n\nSince all the data is not included, the package includes the results produced by replicators. These files can be used to review the results presented in the paper.  \n","technology_requirements":"Run time: ~ 40 minutes","technology_environment":"Paper exhibits were reproduced on a computer with the following specifications:\n\u2022 OS: Windows 11 Enterprise\n\u2022 Processor: INTEL(R) XEON(R) PLATINUM 8562Y+ 2.80 GHz (4 processors)\n\u2022 Memory available: 32 GB"},"datacite":{"creators":[{"givenName":"Youngkwang","familyName":"Jeon","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank"}]},{"givenName":"Nukba","familyName":"Zia","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health"}]},{"givenName":"Daniel","familyName":"Mont","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Inclusive Policy"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Stuart","familyName":"Johnson","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Education"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Shabani","familyName":"Abeid","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Education"},{"name":"Action on Disability and Development (ADD) International"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"nameType":"Personal","givenName":"Fredrick","familyName":"Manang","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Dodoma"}]},{"givenName":"Sarena","familyName":"Ho","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Juliette","familyName":"Myers","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Education"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Richard","familyName":"Nzoka","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Education"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Nurat","familyName":"Karamagi","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Education"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Godfrey","familyName":"Mulongo","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Education"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Aidan","familyName":"Coville","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Guadalupe","familyName":"Bedoya","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank"}],"nameType":"Personal"},{"givenName":"Hee Kwon","familyName":"Seo","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank"}],"nameType":"Personal"}],"titles":[{"title":"Reproducibility package for Child-Direct Disability Screening in Tanzanian Primary Schools: Estimating Administrative Undercounts and Implications for Disability Prevalence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries","lang":"en"},{"title":"RR_TZA_2025_476","titleType":"Other"}],"publisher":"World Bank","publicationYear":"2026","types":{"resourceType":"Reproducibility package","resourceTypeGeneral":"Other"},"url":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org\/index.php\/catalog\/study\/RR_TZA_2025_476","language":"en"},"tags":[{"tag":"DOI"},{"tag":"Open Code"},{"tag":"Restricted Data"}],"schematype":"script"}