{"type":"script","doc_desc":{"producers":[{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","abbr":"DECDI","affiliation":"World Bank - Development Impact Department","role":"Verification and preparation of metadata"}],"prod_date":"2026-08-12","version":"1"},"project_desc":{"authoring_entity":[{"name":"Maria Davalos","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"mdavalos@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Henry Stemmler","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"hstemmler@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Varun Kshirsagar","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"varun.kshirsagar@gmail.com"}],"title_statement":{"title":"Reproducibility package for Urban Job Accessibility For The Poor","idno":"FR_WLD_2026_690"},"data_statement":"Some data is restricted and has not been included in the reproducibility package. For more details, please refer to the README file. ","software":[{"name":"R","version":"4.5.2"}],"scripts":[{"title":"Reproducibility package for Urban Job Accessibility For The Poor","date":"2026-08","notes":"Computational reproducibility verified by Development Impact (DECDI) Analytics team, World Bank.","instructions":"See README in reproducibility package.","file_name":"FR_WLD_2026_690","zip_package":"FR_WLD_2026_690.zip","dependencies":"R dependencies are listed in the file renv.lock."}],"repository_uri":[{"name":"Reproducible Research Repository (World Bank)","uri":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org"}],"production_date":"2026-08-12","abstract":"Urban areas concentrate a disproportionate share of economic opportunities in developing countries, yet residing in a city does not guarantee access to its labor market. This note presents a diagnostic of urban job accessibility among the poor and explores a methodology for extending this analysis to data-scarce environments using geospatial data. Drawing on various traditional data, such as population and economic censuses, as well as geospatial data sources, we present various measures of job accessibility and apply it across seven cities in Colombia, Ghana, the Philippines, and South Africa. The analysis finds that job accessibility is systematically lower for households in the poorest welfare quintiles, a pattern that seems to persist regardless of job type or sector and that holds consistently across cities, even as its magnitude varies. These disparities reflect structural features of urban form, housing markets, and transport systems that push lower-income populations toward the periphery and away from where the jobs are. Beyond the analyzed cities, the note takes an initial step in testing the use of satellite-derived features to identify neighborhoods that are jointly deprived in both the welfare and job access dimensions, in cities where conventional data are unavailable; this approach, while still emerging, shows promise for helping fill data and analytical gaps. Overall, by identifying the poor\u2019s access to jobs from a spatial perspective, the findings can carry direct implications for transport investment, land-use planning, and economic development policy, and are accompanied by a replication package designed to support adaptation across urban contexts. ","geographic_units":[{"name":"World","code":"WLD"}],"output":[{"description":" World Bank Reports & Flagships","title":"Urban Job Accessibility For The Poor","type":"Flagships & Reports"}],"language":[{"name":"English","code":"EN"}],"disclaimer":"The materials in the reproducibility packages are distributed as they were prepared by the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development\/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this event do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the materials included in the reproducibility package.","license":[{"name":"MIT License","uri":"https:\/\/opensource.org\/license\/mit"},{"name":"World Bank IGO Rider","uri":"https:\/\/github.com\/worldbank\/metadata-editor\/blob\/main\/WB-IGO-RIDER.md"}],"contacts":[{"name":"Maria Davalos","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"mdavalos@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"reproducibility@worldbank.org"}],"datasets":[{"name":"Bogot\u00e1 Georeferenced Commercial Registry (Registro Mercantil)","note":"Geocoded employer registry for Bogot\u00e1. File location: 2.data\/private\/col\/bogota\/MA_GEO_JUL_25\/MA_GEO_JUL_25.csv. Shared confidentially by A. L. Acosta Hern\u00e1ndez (alacosta@sdp.gov.co), District Planning Secretariat of Bogot\u00e1.","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Custom License","citation":"Secretar\u00eda Distrital de Planeaci\u00f3n de Bogot\u00e1. 2025. \"Registro Mercantil georreferenciado (MA_GEO_JUL_25)\" [dataset]. Unpublished data. Accessed October 2025."},{"name":"Cali Business Registry (Registro de Empresas)","note":"Employer registry for Cali. File location: 2.data\/private\/col\/cali\/base_prinicipal_corregida.xlsx. Shared confidentially by A. Prado Caicedo (andres.prado@cali.gov.co), Mayor's Office of Cali.","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Custom License","citation":"Alcald\u00eda de Santiago de Cali. 2025. \"Registro de empresas, base principal corregida\" [dataset]. Unpublished data. Accessed September 2025."},{"name":"DANE Colombia \u2013 National Geostatistical Framework and Welfare Indicators","note":"Four datasets from DANE used to construct spatial units and poverty indicators for Bogot\u00e1 and Cali. \n\n(1) MGN2018 sector-level boundaries (urban and rural sectors): 2.data\/public\/col\/MGN2024_00_COLOMBIA\/MGN\/ \u2014 layers MGN_RUR_SECTOR.* and MGN_URB_SECTOR.* (14 shapefile components total). Download: dane.gov.co\/files\/geoportal-provisional\/, search 'MGN2018 Integrado con CNPV2018'. \n\n(2) MGN2018 census block (manzana) layer with 2018 census population joined to geometry (~2 GB extracted): 2.data\/public\/col\/SHP_MGN2018_INTGRD_MANZ\/ \u2014 layer MGN_ANM_MANZANA.* (6 components); source archive at 2.data\/public\/col\/SHP_MGN2018_INTGRD_MANZ.zip; a FileGDB version (Manzanas_CNUE_Marco_Pos_DEST.gdb) is also present. Download: dane.gov.co\/files\/geoportal-provisional\/, search 'MGN2018 Integrado con CNPV2018, nivel de Manzana Censal'. \n\n(3) Block-level vulnerability and MPI shapefile (VULNRB_IPMxMZ): 2.data\/private\/col\/VULNRB_IPMxMZ\/ (5 shapefile components). Note: public DANE data stored under private\/ in the package layout. Download: dane.gov.co\/files\/geoportal-provisional\/, search 'Nivel de vulnerabilidad e IPM por manzana'. \n\n(4) Municipal-level MPI estimates (Medida de pobreza multidimensional de fuente censal), prepared by WB consultant J. A. Parra Hincapie from DANE source data; WB-prepared file flagged for DDH archiving: 2.data\/public\/col\/pm.xlsx. Download: dane.gov.co, search 'Medida de pobreza multidimensional de fuente censal'.\",\n","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"DANE Open Data","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.dane.gov.co\/index.php\/terrminos-y-condiciones-dane","uri":"https:\/\/dane.gov.co\/files\/geoportal-provisional\/","citation":"DANE. 2018. \"Marco Geoestad\u00edstico Nacional, MGN2018 Integrado con CNPV2018\" [shapefile]. Bogot\u00e1: DANE. Accessed October 2025. DANE. 2020. \"Nivel de vulnerabilidad e IPM por manzana\" [shapefile]. Bogot\u00e1: DANE. Accessed October 2025. DANE. 2020. \"Medida de pobreza multidimensional municipal de fuente censal\" [dataset]. Bogot\u00e1: DANE. Accessed October 2025."},{"name":"Cali Neighborhood Boundaries (Barrios de Cali)","note":"Neighborhood boundary shapefile for Cali. File location: 2.data\/public\/col\/mc_barrios\/ (4 components: .dbf, .prj, .shp, .shx). Download: datos.cali.gov.co\/dataset\/servicio-wms-barrios-de-cali.","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution","license_uri":"https:\/\/opendefinition.org\/licenses\/cc-by\/","uri":"https:\/\/datos.cali.gov.co\/dataset\/servicio-wms-barrios-de-cali","citation":"Alcald\u00eda de Santiago de Cali. n.d. \"Barrios de Cali\" [shapefile]. Datos Abiertos Cali. https:\/\/datos.cali.gov.co\/dataset\/servicio-wms-barrios-de-cali. Accessed October 2025."},{"name":"Accra Tro-Tro GTFS Feed (Trufi Association \/ TUMI Data Hub)","note":"GTFS transit feed for the Accra tro-tro network. Used to compute transit travel-time matrices (read when the cache is absent) and for Figure 6a (stops.txt is read on every run). File locations: 2.data\/public\/gha\/accra.gtfs.zip (ZIP archive) and 2.data\/public\/gha\/accra.gtfs\/ (8 unzipped members: agency.txt, calendar.txt, frequencies.txt, routes.txt, shapes.txt, stop_times.txt, stops.txt, trips.txt). Download: hub.tumidata.org\/dataset\/trufi_gtfs_accra_accra.","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Open (TUMI Data Hub listing)","license_uri":"https:\/\/hub.tumidata.org\/dataset\/trufi_gtfs_accra_accra","uri":"https:\/\/hub.tumidata.org\/dataset\/trufi_gtfs_accra_accra","citation":"TUMI Data Hub \/ Trufi Association. 2026. \"GTFS feed, Accra tro-tro network\" [dataset]. https:\/\/hub.tumidata.org\/dataset\/trufi_gtfs_accra_accra. Accessed April 2026."},{"name":"Accra Metropolitan Area Boundary (World Bank Transport)","note":"AMA administrative boundary shapefile used to define the study area for Accra. WB-originated file; contact F. Arroyo Arroyo, World Bank Transport. File location: 2.data\/public\/gha\/AMA\/ (6 components: ama.dbf, ama.prj, ama.sbn, ama.sbx, ama.shp, ama.shx).","access_type":"Data is forthcoming in the World Bank Development Data Hub.","citation":"World Bank Transport. n.d. \"Accra Metropolitan Area boundary\" [shapefile]. Forthcoming in the World Bank Development Data Hub. Accessed April 2026."},{"name":"Ghana Economic Census 2023 \u2013 Grid-Level Extract","note":"Grid-level employment data from the 2023 Ghana Economic Census. Shared confidentially by Anthony Krakah (anthony.krakah@statsghana.gov.gh), Ghana Statistical Service. File location: 2.data\/private\/gha\/econ_census_grid.gpkg.","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Custom License","citation":"Ghana Statistical Service. 2023. \"Economic Census 2023, grid-level extract\" [dataset]. Accra: GSS. Accessed October 2025."},{"name":"Ghana Population Census 2021 \u2013 Gridded Population Data","note":"Population census at grid level derived from PHC 2021. WB-originated file. Requestable from Statistics Ghana: census2021.statsghana.gov.gh; 2021phc@statsghana.gov.gh. Contact: L. Rodriguez Takeuchi, World Bank Poverty GP. File location: 2.data\/private\/gha\/WB_data_gridded_updated_20240213.csv.","access_type":"Data is forthcoming in the World Bank Development Data Hub.","citation":"Ghana Statistical Service \/ World Bank. 2024. \"Population census at grid level (WB_data_gridded_updated_20240213)\" [dataset]. Forthcoming in the World Bank Development Data Hub. Accessed October 2025."},{"name":"South Africa Census 2011 \u2013 Subplace Boundaries and Subplace Tables","note":"Two datasets from Statistics South Africa Census 2011 used in the pipeline and the frozen South Africa prep workflow. \n\n(1) Subplace boundary file cleaned by authors; all 22,108 geometries validated. File locations: 2.data\/private\/zaf\/Data_SAF_JAI\/SP_SA_2011_clean.gpkg (pipeline input) and 2.data\/private\/zaf\/South_Africa_Data_Prep\/SP_SA_2011_clean.gpkg (frozen prep source). \n\n(2) Subplace tables used to derive a subplace-level asset index (see prep scripts). File location: 2.data\/private\/zaf\/South_Africa_Data_Prep\/asset_index.csv. Both accessed via superweb.statssa.gov.za (registration required); contact info@statssa.gov.za.\n ","access_type":"Data access requires purchase or human approval and is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Statistics South Africa Terms of Use","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.statssa.gov.za\/?page_id=5971","uri":"https:\/\/superweb.statssa.gov.za\/","citation":"Statistics South Africa. 2011. \"Census 2011 subplace boundaries (SP_SA_2011) and subplace tables\" [dataset]. Pretoria: Stats SA. Accessed July 2023.\n"},{"name":"SEAD-SA Spatial Economic Activity Data \u2013 FTE Employment and H3 Grid","note":"Two datasets from the SEAD-SA portal derived from restricted SARS\u2013National Treasury tax administrative data. \n\n(1) Hex-resolution-7 full-time-equivalent employment by wage band and 5-digit industry, monthly (2019). The hex7 aggregate is the shippable form shared with the reproducibility unit. Used in the frozen South Africa prep workflow; an RDS version (data_saf_global_toolkit.rds) is also used as input to the Part 2 outcomes prep. File locations: 2.data\/private\/zaf\/South_Africa_Data_Prep\/hex7_FTE_WageBand_Industry5d_Monthly.csv and 2.data\/predictions\/Data\/Outcomes\/data_saf_global_toolkit.rds. Accessed December 2025. \n\n(2) Uber H3 resolution-7 hexagonal grid shapefile for South Africa. CRS EPSG:4326 (no .prj delivered; set in code). File location: 2.data\/private\/zaf\/South_Africa_Data_Prep\/ (4 components: UberH3_7.cpg, .dbf, .shp, .shx). Accessed July 2025. Access via SEAD-SA portal.\n ","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Custom License","citation":"SEAD-SA. 2025. \"Hex7-level FTE employment by wage band and 5-digit industry, monthly (2019)\" [dataset]. Accessed December 2025. SEAD-SA. 2025. \"Uber H3 resolution-7 hexagonal grid\" [shapefile]. Accessed July 2025."},{"name":"World Bank Official Boundaries \u2013 Admin 2","note":"World Bank official ADM2 boundary geopackage. File location: 2.data\/public\/World Bank Official Boundaries - Admin 2.gpkg. Download: World Bank Data Catalog (datacatalog.worldbank.org).","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)","license_uri":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/","uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0038272","citation":"World Bank. 2020. \"World Bank Official Boundaries, Admin 2\" [geopackage]. Washington, DC: World Bank Data Catalog. https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0038272. Accessed [date not recorded \u2014 author to confirm]."},{"name":"Philippines PSA: Business Census, Administrative Boundaries, and Geographic Code","note":"Three datasets obtained directly from the Philippine Statistics Authority via J. P. Cajita (ncs.staff@psa.gov.ph), all delivered under confidential terms. \n\n(1) CPBI 2018 barangay \u00d7 5-digit industry employment (weighted) and barangay code crosswalk (legacy CPBI prefix 1339 to PSGC 2023 prefix 13806). File locations: 2.data\/private\/phl\/Philippines_Data_Prep\/cpbi2018_bgy_sector_wgt.dta and ncr_bgy_match.xlsx. \n\n(2) Official barangay-level administrative boundary shapefile, version 2023-11-06. File location: 2.data\/private\/phl\/Philippines_Data_Prep\/ (7 components: phl_admbnda_adm4_psa_namria_20231106.*). \n\n(3) Philippine Standard Geographic Code Q3 2023; the specific quarterly release used is no longer publicly downloadable from psa.gov.ph (only current editions are posted). File location: 2.data\/private\/phl\/Philippines_Data_Prep\/PSGC-3Q-2023-Publication-Datafile.xlsx. All used in the frozen Philippines prep workflow.\n","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","citation":"Philippine Statistics Authority. 2018. \"Census of Philippine Business and Industry 2018, barangay \u00d7 5-digit industry employment (weighted)\" [dataset]. Quezon City: PSA. Accessed November 2025. PSA-NAMRIA. 2023. \"Administrative boundaries ADM4 (barangay), 2023-11-06\" [shapefile]. Quezon City: PSA. Accessed November 2025. Philippine Statistics Authority. 2023. \"Philippine Standard Geographic Code, 3rd Quarter 2023\" [dataset]. Quezon City: PSA. Accessed November 2025."},{"name":"Philippines Census of Population and Housing 2020 \u2013 Form 2 Individual Records (CPH 2020)","note":"Individual-level census records for Metro Manila (NCR), Region III (Central Luzon), and Region IV-A (Calabarzon). Public-use files available via registered access at psada.psa.gov.ph; the full regional records used were provided directly by PSA via J. P. Cajita (ncs.staff@psa.gov.ph). \nUsed in the frozen Philippines prep workflow and for the Part 2 origins file (ph_ncr_origins_fua_10km.rds). \nFile locations: 2.data\/private\/phl\/Population Census Form 2 (Individual data)\/ \u2014 Form 2 (Individual data).7z (delivery archive), ncr_cph2020_form2.dta, r3_cph2020_form2.dta, r4a_cph2020_form2.dta; and 2.data\/predictions\/Data\/Outcomes\/ph_ncr_origins_fua_10km.rds (derived intermediate for Part 2).\n","access_type":"Data access requires purchase or human approval and is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"PSA Terms of Access","license_uri":"https:\/\/psada.psa.gov.ph\/","uri":"https:\/\/psada.psa.gov.ph\/","citation":"Philippine Statistics Authority. 2020. \"Census of Population and Housing 2020, Form 2 individual records (NCR, Region III, Region IV-A)\" [dataset]. Quezon City: PSA. Accessed November 2025."},{"name":"VIIRS Annual VNL V2 Nighttime Lights 2019","note":"Annual composite nighttime lights raster, 2019, from the VIIRS\/NPP sensor. Used by the frozen Part 2 feature prep. File location: 2.data\/predictions\/Data\/Rasters\/NTL\/NTL_2019.tif. Download: eogdata.mines.edu\/products\/vnl\/.","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Free with attribution (EOG Terms of Use)","license_uri":"https:\/\/eogdata.mines.edu\/products\/vnl\/","uri":"https:\/\/eogdata.mines.edu\/products\/vnl\/","citation":"Elvidge, C.D. et al. 2021. \"Annual VNL V2 nighttime lights composite, 2019\" [dataset]. Earth Observation Group, Payne Institute, Colorado School of Mines. https:\/\/eogdata.mines.edu\/products\/vnl\/. Accessed July 2023."},{"note":"Four datasets from the JRC Global Human Settlement Layer programme, all licensed CC BY 4.0. \n\n(1) GHS-FUA R2019A: functional urban area delineations based on UCDB 2015; used to build city boundaries for the analysis and the Part 2 feature prep. File location: 2.data\/predictions\/Data\/GHSL_FUA\/GHS_FUA_UCDB2015_GLOBE_R2019A_54009_1K_V1_0.gpkg. Download: ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu. \n\n(2) GHS-POP R2023A: 100 m resolution population grid, epoch 2020. Used in two contexts: subplace population weights for the frozen South Africa prep (extracted to 2.data\/private\/zaf\/South_Africa_Data_Prep\/subplace_population_ghsl100m.csv, accessed July 2023) and raster input to the frozen Part 2 feature prep (2.data\/predictions\/Data\/Rasters\/Population\/GHS_POP_100_2020.tif, accessed January 2026). DOI: 10.2905\/2FF68A52-5B5B-4A22-8F40-C41DA8332CFE. \n\n(3) GHS-BUILT-H R2023A: average net building height (ANBH), epoch 2018, 3 arcsec resolution; used by the frozen Part 2 feature prep. File location: 2.data\/predictions\/Data\/Rasters\/GHSL_Height\/GHS_BUILT_H_ANBH_E2018_GLOBE_R2023A_4326_3ss_V1_0.tif. Download: human-settlement.emergency.copernicus.eu\/ghs_buH2023.php. \n\n(4) GHS-BUILT-V R2023A: built-up volume grid, epoch 2020, 100 m resolution; used by the frozen Part 2 feature prep. File location: 2.data\/predictions\/Data\/Rasters\/GHSL_Volume\/GHS_BUILT_100m_2020.tif. Download: human-settlement.emergency.copernicus.eu\/ghs_buV2023.php.","name":"Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL) \u2013 FUA, Population, Built-Up Height, and Built-Up Volume","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)","license_uri":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/","citation":"Schiavina, M., et al. and Pesaresi, M., Politis, P. 2019\u20132023. \"Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL) Datasets\" [datasets]. European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC). Accessed January 2026."}],"technology_requirements":"Run time: ~ 1 hour","technology_environment":"Paper exhibits were reproduced on a computer with the following specifications:\n\u2022 OS: Windows 11 Enterprise\n\u2022 Processor: INTEL(R) XEON(R) PLATINUM 8562Y+ (2.80 GHz) (2 processors)\n\u2022 Memory available: 128.0 GB","reproduction_instructions":"To reproduce the findings in this paper, a replicator must:\n1. **Secure Access to Data:** Access the datasets not included in the package. See the Datasets section for more details.\n2. **Run the Package:**\n    - Open the R project `Job_Accessibility_Index.Rproj`\n    - Open the script `00.master.R` and run the code.\n\nSince not all the data is included, the package includes the results produced by replicators. These files can be used to review the results presented in the paper."},"datacite":{"creators":[{"givenName":"Maria","familyName":"Davalos","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]},{"givenName":"Henry","familyName":"Stemmler","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]},{"givenName":"Varun","familyName":"Kshirsagar","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]}],"titles":[{"lang":"en","title":"Reproducibility package for Urban Job Accessibility For The Poor"},{"title":"FR_WLD_2026_690","titleType":"Other"}],"publisher":"World Bank","publicationYear":"2026","types":{"resourceType":"Reproducibility package","resourceTypeGeneral":"Other"},"url":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org\/index.php\/catalog\/study\/FR_WLD_2026_690","language":"en"},"tags":[{"tag":"DOI"},{"tag":"Open Code"},{"tag":"Restricted Data"}],"schematype":"script"}