{"type":"script","doc_desc":{"producers":[{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","abbr":"DECDI","affiliation":"World Bank - Development Impact Department","role":"Verification and preparation of metadata"}],"prod_date":"2026-08-10","version":"1"},"project_desc":{"authoring_entity":[{"name":"Brian Blankespoor","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"bblankespoor@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Susmita Dasgupta","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"mailforsusmita@gmail.com"},{"name":"David Wheeler","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"wheelrdr@gmail.com"}],"title_statement":{"title":"Reproducibility package for Tracking Air Pollution From Space: High-Resolution Daily Estimates For PM2.5, O3, NO2 And CO","idno":"RR_WLD_2026_678"},"data_statement":"Some data is restricted and has not been included in the reproducibility package. For more details, refer to the README file.","software":[{"name":"R","version":"4.4.0"}],"scripts":[{"title":"Reproducibility package for Tracking Air Pollution From Space: High-Resolution Daily Estimates For PM2.5, O3, NO2 And CO","date":"2026-08","notes":"Computational reproducibility verified by Development Impact (DECDI) Analytics team, World Bank.","instructions":"See README in reproducibility package.","file_name":"RR_WLD_2026_678","zip_package":"RR_WLD_2026_678.zip","dependencies":"R dependencies are listed in the file renv.lock."}],"repository_uri":[{"name":"Reproducible Research Repository (World Bank)","uri":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org"}],"production_date":"2026-08-10","abstract":"Air pollution imposes severe health and economic costs worldwide, yet ground-based monitoring data are difficult and expensive to collect, limiting information available for policy analysis. This paper develops machine learning models to estimate daily air quality using satellite observations, meteorological data, emissions inventories, and geographic information. Data sources include IQAir ground station reports, atmospheric pollutant concentrations from ESA's TROPOMI platform, and meteorological data from the Copernicus ERA5 Land database. We estimate separate random forest models for PM2.5 (fine particulates), O3 (ozone), NO2 (nitrogen dioxide), and CO (carbon monoxide), using a random forest algorithm that quantifies variable importance. \n\nResults are robust: TROPOMI dominates predictions for PM2.5, NO2, and CO, with EDGAR emissions and meteorological variables providing secondary contributions. For O3, meteorological variables are most influential, followed by TROPOMI and EDGAR. Geographic features matter across all pollutants \u2014 elevation, latitude, and coastal proximity consistently rank high, while K\u00f6ppen\u2013Geiger climate zones vary in importance by pollutant.\n\nWe validate temporal tracking by correlating daily monitored versus predicted pollutant levels across urban areas using IQAir ground station data. Median intertemporal correlations exceed 0.69 for all pollutants, with upper quartiles above 0.82 and lower quartiles above 0.53. Although the pilot uses April\u2013November 2025 data, TROPOMI has been available since 2018 and ERA5 Land provides matching coverage, enabling daily estimates from April 2018 onward on a global terrestrial grid at 0.1 degree resolution. The database could also link our models to the ESA Copernicus reporting system to deliver daily air quality updates and forward-looking trend estimates.","geographic_units":[{"name":"World","code":"WLD"}],"keywords":[{"name":"Air Quality"},{"name":"Satellite Observations"},{"name":"Machine Learning"},{"name":"Pm 25"},{"name":"Ozone"},{"name":"Nitrogen Dioxide"},{"name":"Carbon Monoxide"}],"topics":[{"id":"Q53","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Air Pollution \u2022 Water Pollution \u2022 Noise \u2022 Hazardous Waste \u2022 Solid Waste \u2022 Recycling","parent_id":"Q5"},{"id":" C55","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Large Data Sets: Modeling and Analysis","parent_id":"C5"}],"output":[{"type":"Working Paper","description":"Policy Research Working Papers (PRWP)","title":"Tracking Air Pollution From Space: High-Resolution Daily Estimates For PM2.5, O3, NO2 And CO"}],"language":[{"name":"English","code":"EN"}],"technology_requirements":"Runtime: ~10 hours.","disclaimer":"The materials in the reproducibility packages are distributed as they were prepared by the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development\/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this event do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the materials included in the reproducibility package.","license":[{"name":"MIT License","uri":"https:\/\/opensource.org\/license\/mit"},{"name":"World Bank IGO Rider","uri":"https:\/\/github.com\/worldbank\/metadata-editor\/blob\/main\/WB-IGO-RIDER.md"}],"contacts":[{"name":"Brian Blankespoor","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"bblankespoor@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"reproducibility@worldbank.org"}],"datasets":[{"name":"IQAir Ground Station Data","note":"Source: IQAir.\nPeriod: October 2025 to November 2025. \nFile location: \"wp\/Data\/\". \nFile names: IQAir_Combined_Stations_2_ID.csv; IQAir_Geographic_Database.csv.","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners\/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Custom license","license_url":"https:\/\/www.iqair.com\/legal\/terms-conditions","uri":"https:\/\/www.iqair.com\/us\/commercial-air-quality-monitors\/api","citation":"IQAir. 2025. IQAir Ground Station Data [dataset]. IQAir. https:\/\/www.iqair.com\/us\/commercial-air-quality-monitors\/api. Accessed October\u2013November 2025.","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.iqair.com\/legal\/terms-conditions"},{"name":"TROPOMI (Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument) Satellite Data","note":"Source: European Space Agency, obtained from the World Bank Data Catalog.\nPeriod: September 2014 through February 2026. \nData used in the replication were downloaded by the code on July 30, 2026.\nFile location: \"aq_rp\/wp\/TROPOMI_Daily_History\/\".","access_type":"Data is publicly available but not included in the reproducibility package due to file size constraints.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0","license_url":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses?fragment=cc","uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0067064\/tracking-air-pollution-from-space-replication-files","citation":"Blankespoor, B., Dasgupta, S. and D. Wheeler. 2026. Tracking Air Pollution from Space: Replication Files [Data set]. World Bank Data Catalog. https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0067064\/tracking-air-pollution-from-space-replication-files","license_uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses?fragment=cc"},{"name":"ERA5-Land Daily Reanalysis Data","note":"Source: European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), obtained from the World Bank Data Catalog.\nPeriod: April 2025 through November 2025. \nData used in the replication were downloaded by the code on July 30, 2026.\nFile location: \"aq_rp\/wp\/ERA5_Land_Daily_CSV\/\" (daily CSVs); \"aq_rp\/wp\/Data\/ERA5_Land_Rasters\/\" (raster, included in package).","access_type":"Data is publicly available but not included in the reproducibility package due to file size constraints.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0","license_url":"Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0","uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0067064\/tracking-air-pollution-from-space-replication-files","citation":"Blankespoor, B., Dasgupta, S. and D. Wheeler. 2026. Tracking Air Pollution from Space: Replication Files [Data set]. World Bank Data Catalog. https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0067064\/tracking-air-pollution-from-space-replication-files","license_uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses?fragment=cc"},{"name":"MERIT DEM (Multi-Error-Removed Improved-Terrain Digital Elevation Model) Elevation Data","note":"Source: Yamazaki et al., 2017. Processed via Google Earth Engine script (wp\/GEE\/merit_dem_at_0_1dd.js). \nData used in the replication were processed and downloaded by the code included on July 30, 2026.\nFile location: \"wp\/Data\/Merit_Dem_Global_ERA5.tif.\"","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0","license_url":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/","uri":"https:\/\/global-hydrodynamics.github.io\/MERIT_DEM\/","citation":"Yamazaki, D., Ikeshima, D., Tawatari, R., Yamaguchi, T., O'Loughlin, F., Neal, J.C., Sampson, C.C., Kanae, S., and Bates, P.D. (2017). \"MERIT DEM: A new high-accuracy global digital elevation model\" [dataset]. Available at http:\/\/hydro.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp\/~yamadai\/MERIT_DEM\/. ","license_uri":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"name":"Global Human Settlement Population Grid","note":"Source: European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC). \nAccess date: May 2026. \nFile location: \"wp\/Data\/GHS_POP\/\" (raw rasters); \"wp\/Data\/Global_Population_IDs.csv \" (derived file).","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)","license_url":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/","uri":"https:\/\/data.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/dataset\/2ff68a52-5b5b-4a22-8f40-c41da8332cfe","citation":"Schiavina, M., Freire, S., Carioli, A., and MacManus, K. (2023). \"GHS-POP R2023A \u2014 GHS population grid multitemporal (1975-2030)\" [dataset]. European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2905\/2FF68A52-5B5B-4A22-8F40-C41DA8332CFE. Accessed May 2026.","license_uri":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"name":"Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR)","note":"Source: Compiled by the authors based on the dataset from the European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC). \nFile location: \"wp\/Data\/ EDGAR.csv \". ","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Custom license","license_url":"https:\/\/edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/terms","citation":"Blankespoor, B., Dasgupta, S., & Wheeler, D. 2026. EDGAR Emissions Database [Data set].\n"},{"name":"K\u00f6ppen-Geiger Climate Classification","note":"Source: Beck et al. (2023), obtained from the World Bank Data Catalog.\nData used in the replication were downloaded by the code on July 30, 2026.\nFile location: \"wp\/Data\/Koppen_Geiger_1991_2020\/koppen_geiger_0p1.tif \" (raw rasters); \"wp\/Data\/ Koppen_Dummies.csv.\" (derived file).","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0","license_url":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses?fragment=cc","uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0067064\/tracking-air-pollution-from-space-replication-files","citation":"Blankespoor, B., Dasgupta, S. and D. Wheeler. 2026. Tracking Air Pollution from Space: Replication Files [Data set]. World Bank Data Catalog. https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0067064\/tracking-air-pollution-from-space-replication-files","license_uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses?fragment=cc"},{"name":"World Bank Official Boundaries","note":"Source: World Bank Data Catalog. \nData used in the replication were downloaded by the code on July 30, 2026.\nFile location: \"aq_rp\/Data\/GAD\/\".","access_type":"Data is publicly available but not included in the reproducibility package due to file size constraints.","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)","license_url":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses?fragment=cc","uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0038272\/World-Bank-Official-Boundaries","citation":"World Bank. 2026. \"World Bank Official Boundaries\" [dataset]. World Bank Data Catalog. https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/search\/dataset\/0038272\/World-Bank-Official-Boundaries.","license_uri":"https:\/\/datacatalog.worldbank.org\/public-licenses?fragment=cc"},{"name":"Global Human Settlement Layer Functional Urban Areas (GHSL-FUA)","note":"Source: Compiled by the authors based on the dataset from the European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC). \nYear used: 2019.\nFile location: \"wp\/Data\/ FUA_All_Cell_IDs.csv\".","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","citation":"Blankespoor, B., Dasgupta, S., & Wheeler, D. 2026. GHSL Functional Urban Areas (FUA) [Data set].\n"}],"technology_environment":"Paper exhibits were reproduced on a computer with the following specifications:\n\u2022 OS: Windows 11 Enterprise\n\u2022 Processor: Intel(R) Xeon(R) Platinum 8562Y+ (2.80 GHz) (2 processors)\n\u2022 Memory available: 128.0 GB","reproduction_instructions":"To reproduce the findings in this paper, a replicator must:\n1. **Secure Access to Data:** Access the datasets not included in the package. See the Datasets section for more details.\n2. **Run the Package:**\n  - Open the R project `aq_rp.Rproj`.\n  - Restore the environment by running renv::restore() and following the prompts.\n  - Open the `wp\/R Suites\/0__Run_All_Programs.R` and run the code.\n\nSince not all the data is included, the package includes the results produced by replicators. These files can be used to review the results presented in the paper."},"datacite":{"creators":[{"givenName":"Brian","familyName":"Blankespoor","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]},{"givenName":"Susmita","familyName":"Dasgupta","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]},{"givenName":"David","familyName":"Wheeler","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]}],"titles":[{"lang":"en","title":"Tracking Air Pollution From Space: High-Resolution Daily Estimates For PM2.5, O3, NO2 And CO"},{"title":"RR_WLD_2026_678","titleType":"Other"}],"publisher":"World Bank","publicationYear":"2026","types":{"resourceType":"Reproducibility package","resourceTypeGeneral":"Other"},"url":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org\/index.php\/catalog\/study\/RR_WLD_2026_678","language":"en"},"tags":[{"tag":"DOI"},{"tag":"Open Code"},{"tag":"Restricted Data"}],"schematype":"script"}