{"type":"script","doc_desc":{"producers":[{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","abbr":"DECDI","affiliation":"World Bank - Development Impact Department","role":"Verification and preparation of metadata"}],"prod_date":"2026-09-30","version":"1"},"project_desc":{"authoring_entity":[{"name":"Alessandro Barattieri","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"abarattieri@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Jessica Yang Chen","affiliation":"University of Hong Kong","email":"jessiecovy@gmail.com"},{"name":"Bingjing Li","affiliation":"University of Hong Kong","email":"bingjing.crystal@gmail.com"},{"name":"Aaditya Mattoo","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"amattoo@worldbank.org"}],"title_statement":{"title":"Reproducibility package for \"Many Chinas\": Provincial Foundations of Chinese Export Performance","idno":"RR_CHN_2026_752"},"data_statement":"The reproducibility package relies on 3 types of data: open, accessible and restricted. For the source, access type, file location, and citation of each dataset, refer to the Datasets section and the README file.","software":[{"name":"Stata","version":"19.5 MP"},{"name":"Python","version":"3.11.16"}],"scripts":[{"title":"Reproducibility package for \"Many Chinas\": Provincial Foundations of Chinese Export Performance","date":"2026-09","notes":"Computational reproducibility verified by Development Impact (DECDI) Analytics team, World Bank.","instructions":"See README in reproducibility package.","file_name":"RR_CHN_2026_752","zip_package":"RR_CHN_2026_752.zip","dependencies":"Stata dependencies are listed in the ado folder. Python dependencies are listed in the \"environment.yml\" file."}],"repository_uri":[{"name":"Reproducible Research Repository (World Bank)","uri":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org"}],"production_date":"2026-09-30","abstract":"China\u2019s export performance is characterized by two striking features: a steady rise in export sophistication and the continued prominence of less sophisticated products. This paper proposes the \u201cMany Chinas\u201d hypothesis, that China's provinces differ in their comparative advantage and in how this comparative advantage has evolved over time. Using detailed Chinese customs export data from 1995 to 2023, this paper investigates the provincial underpinnings of China's export performance. Three main findings emerge. First, export similarity between Chinese provinces and the advanced economies increased over time, initially more rapidly in the eastern provinces. Second, despite this increased export similarity with the advanced countries, there remained significant heterogeneity across provinces in 2023. In their export structure, provinces such as Shanghai and Jiangsu resemble most closely the Republic of Korea while Guangdong and Shanxi resemble Viet Nam and the Philippines, respectively. Third, this paper identifies a novel pattern: during the first decade after China's World Trade Organization accession in 2001, the export sophistication of the country's eastern provinces increased much faster than that of other provinces, but since about 2010, there has been remarkable convergence in sophistication across all provinces.","geographic_units":[{"name":"China","code":"CHN"}],"keywords":[{"name":"Chinese Provinces"},{"name":"Export Similarity"},{"name":"Export Sophistication"}],"topics":[{"id":"F14","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Empirical Studies of Trade","parent_id":"F1"},{"id":" O14","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Industrialization \u2022 Manufacturing and Service Industries \u2022 Choice of Technology","parent_id":"O1"},{"id":" R11","uri":"https:\/\/www.aeaweb.org\/econlit\/jelCodes.php?view=jel","vocabulary":"Journal of Economic Literature (JEL)","name":"Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental Issues, and Changes","parent_id":"R1"}],"output":[{"type":"Working Paper","description":"Policy Research Working Paper (PRWP)","title":"\"Many Chinas\": Provincial Foundations of Chinese Export Performance","authors":"Alessandro Barattieri, Jessica Yang Chen, Bingjing Li, Aaditya Mattoo"}],"language":[{"name":"English","code":"EN"}],"technology_requirements":"Run time: ~30 minutes","disclaimer":"The materials in the reproducibility packages are distributed as they were prepared by the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development\/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this event do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the materials included in the reproducibility package.","license":[{"name":"MIT License","uri":"https:\/\/opensource.org\/license\/mit"},{"name":"World Bank IGO Rider","uri":"https:\/\/github.com\/worldbank\/metadata-editor\/blob\/main\/WB-IGO-RIDER.md"}],"contacts":[{"name":"Alessandro Barattieri","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"abarattieri@worldbank.org"},{"name":"Reproducibility WBG","affiliation":"World Bank","email":"reproducibility@worldbank.org"}],"reproduction_instructions":"To reproduce the findings in this paper, a replicator must:\n1. **Secure Access to Data:** Access the datasets not included in the package. See the Datasets section for more details.\n2. **Run the Package:** Update the working directory in lines 17 and 35 of the do-file `00_master`, and run it.\n\nSince not all the data is included, the package includes the results produced by replicators. These files can be used to review the results presented in the paper.","technology_environment":" Paper exhibits were reproduced on a computer with the following specifications:\n - OS: Windows 11 Enterprise\n - Processor: INTEL(R) XEON(R) PLATINUM 8562Y+ 2.80 GHz (2 processors)\n - Memory: 32 GB","datasets":[{"name":"Chinese Provincial Customs Export Data (1995-2023)","access_type":"Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners\/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.","citation":" General Administration of Customs of the People's Republic of China (GACC). \"Chinese Provincial Customs Export Data (1995-2023)\" [dataset]. Unpublished. Accessed January 2026.","license":"Custom license","note":"File location: Data\\Export_CHN. For data access requests, please contact Alessandro Barattieri (abarattieri@worldbank.org)."},{"name":"Database for the Analysis of International Trade (BACI): HS92 (1995-2024), 202601 version","citation":"Centre d'\u00c9tudes Prospectives et d'Informations Internationales (CEPII). \"Database for the Analysis of International Trade (BACI): HS92 (1995-2024), 202601 version\" [dataset]. http:\/\/www.cepii.fr\/CEPII\/en\/bdd_modele\/bdd_modele_item.asp?id=37. Accessed January 2026. ","uri":"https:\/\/www.cepii.fr\/DATA_DOWNLOAD\/baci\/data\/BACI_HS92_V202601.zip","note":"File location: Data\/Export_ROW\/BACI_HS92_V202601\/. Additional citation: Gaulier, G. and S. Zignago (2010), \"BACI: International Trade Database at the Product-Level. The 1994-2007 Version,\" CEPII Working Paper, N\u00b02010-23.","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Etalab Open Licence 2.0","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.etalab.gouv.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/open-licence.pdf"},{"name":"World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) Reference Data","citation":"World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS), World Bank .\"World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) Reference Data\" [dataset]. https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/referencedata.html. Accessed March 2026.","uri":"https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/referencedata.html","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC-BY 4.0) with additional terms of use specified in the license URL","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.\n","note":"File location: Data\/Product_data\/WITS\/product_tech_hs6.dta and Data\/Concordance\/. The file product_tech_hs6.dta is constructed by the authors, the process is outlines in the README. Data\/Concordance contains concordance tables that convert various HS revisions to HS92. ","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/ext\/en\/legal\/terms-conditions"},{"note":"File location: Data\/Macro_data\/. Filenames: wb_pgdp.csv, wb_pgdp_long.dta. ","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/about\/legal\/terms-of-use-for-datasets","uri":"https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.KD","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)","citation":"World Bank. \"World Development Indicators\" [dataset]. Indicator accessed: GDP per capita. https:\/\/databank.worldbank.org\/source\/world-development-indicators. Accessed April 2026.","name":"World Development Indicators","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.\n"},{"note":"Filename: Data\\Product_data\\HSCodeandDescription_HS92_hs6.dta.","uri":"https:\/\/unstats.un.org\/unsd\/classifications\/Econ\/download\/In%20Text\/HSCodeandDescription.xlsx","access_type":"Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and is not included in the reproducibility package.","citation":"United Nations Statistical Division (UNSD). \"Classifications on economic statistics: All HS codes and descriptions\" [dataset]. https:\/\/unstats.un.org\/unsd\/classifications\/Econ\/download\/In%20Text\/HSCodeandDescription.xlsx. Accessed March 2026.","name":"Classifications on economic statistics: All HS codes and descriptions","license":"UN Terms of Use","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/about-us\/terms-of-use"},{"name":"China: Provincial GDP Data","note":"File location: Data\/Macro_data\/. Filenames:  china_prov_pgdp.csv, china_prov_gdp.csv, china_prov_pgdp_long.dta, prov_code.dta. ","citation":"National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBSC). \"China: Provincial GDP Data\" [dataset]. https:\/\/data.stats.gov.cn\/dg\/website\/page.html#\/pc\/national\/yearData. Accessed August 2026.","uri":"https:\/\/data.stats.gov.cn\/dg\/website\/page.html#\/pc\/national\/yearData","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.stats.gov.cn\/wzgl\/202302\/t20230217_1912857.html","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.\n","license":"National Bureau of Statistics Terms of Service"},{"name":"Chinese Yuan Renminbi to U.S. Dollar Spot Exchange Rate [AEXCHUS]","note":"Filename: Data\/Macro_data\/AEXCHUS.csv. ","citation":"Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (US). \"Chinese Yuan Renminbi to U.S. Dollar Spot Exchange Rate [AEXCHUS]\" [dataset]. Retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.  https:\/\/fred.stlouisfed.org\/series\/AEXCHUS. Accessed May 2026. ","uri":"https:\/\/fred.stlouisfed.org\/series\/AEXCHUS","access_type":"Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and is not included in the reproducibility package.","license":"FRED\u00ae Services Terms of Use FAQ","license_uri":"https:\/\/fred.stlouisfed.org\/legal\/"},{"name":"World Economic Outlook Database: Country Classification","note":"File location: Data\/Macro_data\/. Filename: country_classification.dta, imf_classification.dta. ","uri":"https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/publications\/weo\/weo-database\/2023\/april\/groups-and-aggregates","citation":"International Monetary Fund (IMF). \"World Economic Outlook Database: Country Classification\" [dataset]. https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/publications\/weo\/weo-database\/2023\/april\/groups-and-aggregates. Accessed July 2026.   ","license":"IMF Copyright and Usage","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.imf.org\/en\/about\/copyright-and-terms","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.\n"},{"name":"World Bank Country and Lending Groups","note":"File location: Data\/Macro_data\/. Filename: country_classification.dta, wb_income_classification.dta. ","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.\n","citation":"World Bank. \"World Bank Country and Lending Groups\" [dataset]. https:\/\/datahelpdesk.worldbank.org\/knowledgebase\/articles\/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups. Accessed July 2026. ","uri":"https:\/\/datahelpdesk.worldbank.org\/knowledgebase\/articles\/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups","license":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)","license_uri":"https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/ext\/en\/legal\/terms-conditions"},{"name":"China temporal administrative map: A Long-term Series of Provincial, Municipal and County Administrative Division Dataset (2000\u20132024), version 1.30","note":"File location: Data\/Map_CHN\/2013chn.shp. Year accessed: 2013 administrative division data. Additional citation: Rui C, Zhang H, Chen B. China temporal administrative map: a multitemporal database for Chinese historical administrative divisions (2009\u20132023)[C]. Third International Conference on Environmental Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Technology (ERSGIT 2024). SPIE, 2025, 13565: 497-507. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/12.3059430.","uri":"https:\/\/pan.baidu.com\/s\/1wILynp1aH_TTW9791nfY7w?pwd=4444","citation":"Rui Cheng. \"China temporal administrative map: A Long-term Series of Provincial, Municipal and County Administrative Division Dataset (2000\u20132024), version 1.30\" [dataset]. https:\/\/pan.baidu.com\/s\/1wILynp1aH_TTW9791nfY7w?pwd=4444. Accessed January 2026.","license_uri":"https:\/\/github.com\/ruiduobao\/shengshixian.com\/blob\/master\/LICENSE","license":"MIT License","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package."},{"note":"File location: Data\/Export_CHN\/WITS_CHN_export\/. It contains China's exports, one workbook per year (WITS-Partner_YYYY.xlsx, 1995-2023). Each file reports China as reporter and all partner countries. Source: Source: UN Comtrade, accessed via WITS.","name":"World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS): China Exports (1995-2023)","citation":"World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS), World Bank . \"World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS): China Exports (1995-2023)\" [dataset]. https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/CountryProfile\/en\/Country\/CHN\/Year\/2023\/TradeFlow\/Export#. Accessed August 2026. ","uri":"https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/CountryProfile\/en\/Country\/CHN\/Year\/2023\/TradeFlow\/Export#","license_uri":"https:\/\/comtradeplus.un.org\/LicenseAgreement","license":"UN Comtrade Usage Agreement","access_type":"Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and is not included in the reproducibility package."},{"name":"ISO to BACI Country Code Crosswalk","note":"File location: Data\\Intermediate\\iso_to_baci.dta. The crosswalk was created manually by the authors. BACI country codes in the BACI export data (Data\\Export_ROW\\BACI_HS92_V202601\\country_codes_V202601.csv, URL: https:\/\/www.cepii.fr\/DATA_DOWNLOAD\/baci\/data\/BACI_HS92_V202601.zip) are mapped to ISO3 codes (https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/wits\/wits\/witshelp\/content\/codes\/country_codes.htm) according to country names. ","citation":"Authors\u2019 compilation. 2026. \"ISO to BACI Country Code Crosswalk\" [dataset]. Based on CEPII\u2019s BACI country codes (HS92, version 20260) and the World Bank\u2019s WITS country code table. Accessed May 2026.","uri":"https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/wits\/wits\/witshelp\/content\/codes\/country_codes.htm","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Open access","license_uri":"https:\/\/wits.worldbank.org\/wits\/wits\/witshelp\/content\/Codes\/Country_Codes.htm"},{"name":"China Customs to BACI Country Code Crosswalk","note":"File location: Data\\Intermediate\\customs_to_baci.dta. The crosswalk was created manually by the authors. China Customs Statistical Trade Partner Code (http:\/\/tjs.customs.gov.cn\/tjs\/201904\/01\/article_2025122912282228908.html) is concorded to the BACI country codes (Data\\Export_ROW\\BACI_HS92_V202601\\country_codes_V202601.csv, URL: https:\/\/www.cepii.fr\/DATA_DOWNLOAD\/baci\/data\/BACI_HS92_V202601.zip) according to country names.","citation":"Authors\u2019 compilation. 2026. \"China Customs to BACI Country Code Crosswalk\" [dataset]. Based on China Customs Statistical Trade Partner Code and CEPII\u2019s BACI country codes (HS92, version 202601). Accessed May 2026","uri":"http:\/\/tjs.customs.gov.cn\/tjs\/2019-04\/01\/article_2025122912282228908.html","access_type":"Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.","license":"Open access","license_uri":"http:\/\/tjs.customs.gov.cn\/tjs\/2019-04\/01\/article_2025122912282228908.html"}]},"datacite":{"creators":[{"givenName":"Alessandro","familyName":"Barattieri","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]},{"givenName":"Jessica Yang","familyName":"Chen","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Hong Kong","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02zhqgq86","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]},{"givenName":"Bingjing","familyName":"Li","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Hong Kong","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02zhqgq86","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]},{"givenName":"Aaditya","familyName":"Mattoo","nameType":"Personal","affiliation":[{"name":"World Bank","affiliationIdentifier":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ae7jd04","affiliationIdentifierScheme":"ROR","schemeUri":"https:\/\/ror.org"}]}],"titles":[{"lang":"en","title":"Reproducibility package for \"Many Chinas\": Provincial Foundations of Chinese Export Performance"},{"title":"RR_CHN_2026_752","titleType":"Other"}],"publisher":"World Bank","publicationYear":"2026","types":{"resourceType":"Reproducibility package","resourceTypeGeneral":"Other"},"url":"https:\/\/reproducibility.worldbank.org\/index.php\/catalog\/study\/RR_CHN_2026_752","language":"en"},"tags":[{"tag":"DOI"},{"tag":"Open Code"},{"tag":"Restricted Data"}],"schematype":"script"}