This paper proposes a new resilience index, CLARE (Causal machine Learning Approach to Resilience Estimation), which is rooted in an impact evaluation framework and causal machine learning algorithms applied to longitudinal household survey data. The indicator is model-agnostic, data-driven, scalable, and normatively anchored to wellbeing thresholds, and can be either shock-specific or a general-purpose resilience metric. The paper provides an empirical demonstration of constructing the CLARE resilience index, leveraging over 28,000 household observations from 19 nationally-representative, longitudinal, multi-topic surveys that were implemented by the national statistical offices in Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda over the period of 2009-2020 in partnership with the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS). Although the paper centers on measuring resilience to drought, the proposed index is applicable to any type of shock. The analysis shows that CLARE outperforms existing resilience metrics and alternative approaches to predict food insecurity out-of-sample—both in future (dynamic forecasting) and in held-out countries (cross-sectional prediction). Since the index can be decomposed to causally identify the relative importance of resilience capacities that can insulate populations from shocks, it can be operationalized in the design, targeting and monitoring of policies and investments that aim to strengthen resilience. CLARE’s deployment—paired with continued investments in national longitudinal survey platforms—can boost the effectiveness of early-warning systems and resilience-building interventions, while allowing the transfer of resilience policy advice from data-rich contexts to data-poor environments that may not immediately provide the requisite longitudinal survey data for index estimation.
| Repository name | URI |
|---|---|
| Reproducible Research Repository (World Bank) | https://reproducibility.worldbank.org |
Paper exhibits were reproduced on a computer with the following specifications:
• OS: Windows 11 Enterprise
• Processor: Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-1145G7 CPU @ 2.60GHz
• Memory available: 15.7 GB
Runtime: 30 minutes.
To reproduce the findings in this paper, new users should follow the steps below:
STEP 0 - Descriptive_Statistics.do, update the file path in line 5, and run the code..Rproj file included in the package. renv::restore() (recommended), or manually install the required packages. STEP 1 - Estimation_Forecasting.R. STEP 1 - Estimation_Main_Country.R, which executes all estimation steps for Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda.STEP 2 - Aggregation and Evaluation_Forecasting.do, update the file path in the indicated line, and run the code.STEP 2 - Aggregation and Evaluation_Out-Of-Country.do, update the file path in the indicated line, and run the code.STEP 3 - Figures do file, update the file path in the indicated line, and run the code.Note: The full workflow of the package can be executed and reproduces all results reported in the paper. However, the starting point of the reproducibility package is intermediate data, as the raw LSMS-ISA household microdata were merged at an early stage of the analysis with confidential household geographic coordinates, which are restricted and cannot be shared.
For transparency, the complete set of scripts used by the authors to process the raw data and construct the intermediate datasets is included in the folder Codes/Do files - Variable Construction. These scripts were not executed by the replicators, as access to the raw confidential data is restricted. Instead, the replicators virtually verified the data construction process by reviewing the code and confirming that the outputs generated by the authors correspond exactly to the intermediate datasets provided as the starting point of this package. The included intermediate datasets are sufficient to fully reproduce all analyses, tables, and figures presented in the paper.
Some data used in the analysis are restricted and therefore not included in the reproducibility package. However, the intermediate datasets generated by the authors are provided and serve as the starting point of the package, enabling a full replication of all results.
| Author | Affiliation | |
|---|---|---|
| Talip Kilic | World Bank | tkilic@worldbank.org |
| Marco Letta | Sapienza University | marco.letta@uniroma1.it |
| Pierluigi Montalbano | Sapienza University | pierluigi.montalbano@uniroma1.it |
| Federica Petruccelli | Sapienza University | federica.petruccelli@uniroma1.it |
2025-12-10
| Location | Code |
|---|---|
| Africa | AFR |
The materials in the reproducibility packages are distributed as they were prepared by the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this event do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the materials included in the reproducibility package.
| Name | URI |
|---|---|
| Modified BSD3 | https://opensource.org/license/bsd-3-clause/ |
| Name | Affiliation | |
|---|---|---|
| Talip Kilic | World Bank | tkilic@worldbank.org |
| Reproducibility WBG | World Bank | reproducibility@worldbank.org |
| Name | Abbreviation | Affiliation | Role |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproducibility WBG | DECDI | World Bank - Development Impact Department | Verification and preparation of metadata |
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