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Reproducibility package for Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth

2026
Get Reproducibility Package
Reference ID
FR_WLD_2026_601
DOI
https://doi.org/10.60572/py8t-mb68
Author(s)
Xinxin Lyu, Stephane Straub, He He, Yue Li, Jevgenijs Steinbuks, Estefania Vergara Cobos, Manuel Garcia Santana, Harris Selod, Chris Dann
Metadata
JSON
Created on
Apr 16, 2026
Last modified
Jun 02, 2026
Page views
19
Downloads
4
  • Project Description
  • Downloads
  • Overview
  • Reproducibility Package
  • Description
  • Scope and coverage
  • Disclaimer
  • Access and rights
  • Contacts
  • Information on metadata
  • Citation
  • Overview

    Abstract

    Infrastructure lies at the heart of development. Reliable energy systems, efficient transportation networks, and robust digital connectivity are essential for economic growth, job creation, social inclusion, and resilience. They connect people to employment clusters and markets, enable firms to compete and innovate, and allow societies to deliver basic services—from health and education to water and sanitation—at scale. Across much of the developing world, however, large gaps in infrastructure access and quality persist, even as fiscal space remains constrained and investment needs continue to grow. This report, Infrastructure Foundations: From Current Assets to Future Growth, responds to a fundamental policy challenge: how to make better infrastructure investment decisions when resources are scarce and the stakes are high. Governments and development partners face difficult trade-offs, because large unmet needs coexist with tight financing conditions and rising costs. In this context, improving the effectiveness and prioritization of infrastructure spending is as important as mobilizing additional resources.

    Reproducibility Package

    Scripts
    Readme Get Reproducibility Package
    Link: https://reproducibility.worldbank.org/catalog/536/download/1685/README.pdf
    Reproducibility package for Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth
    File name
    FR_WLD_2026_601
    Zip package
    FR_WLD_2026_601.zip
    Title
    Reproducibility package for Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth
    Date
    2026-05
    Dependencies
    R dependencies are listed in the file renv.lock. Stata dependencies are listed in the ado folder. Python dependencies are listed in requirements.txt.
    Instructions
    See README in reproducibility package.
    Notes
    Computational reproducibility verified by Development Impact (DECDI) Analytics team, World Bank.
    Source code repository
    Repository name URI
    Reproducible Research Repository (World Bank) https://reproducibility.worldbank.org
    Software
    R
    Name
    R
    Version
    4.4.3
    Stata
    Name
    Stata
    Version
    18 MP
    Python
    Name
    Python
    Version
    3.12
    Excel
    Name
    Excel
    QGIS
    Name
    QGIS
    Version
    3.38.1

    Reproducibility

    Technology environment

    Paper exhibits were reproduced on a computer with the following specifications:
    • OS: Windows 11 Enterprise (Build 10.0.22631)
    • Processor: Intel(R) Xeon(R) Platinum 8562Y+
    • Memory available: ∼128 GB

    Technology requirements

    Runtime: ~17 minutes

    Reproduction instructions

    To run the code, a new user needs to:

    1. Get access to the restricted and limited-access data, and place it in the appropriate folder. Please see more details in the Data section.
    2. Adjust the root file path to the local machine path in all main script files (.do, .R, and .ipynb) and run the scripts.
      As some of the data is restricted or limited-access and not included in the package, the results produced by the replicators are included in the package in the folder Outputs so users can compare them against the published paper.

    Data

    Datasets
    Energy Infrastructure Stock and Value
    Name
    Energy Infrastructure Stock and Value
    Note
    Source: World Bank Development Data Hub. Files location: Energy_StockValue_national.csv, Energy_StockValue_admin0.csv, Energy_StockValue_admin1.csv, Energy_StockValue_admin2.csv, Combined_PowerPlantsDataset_Share.csv, Energy_PowerPlants_Stock_Capital_admin2.csv. Data is only available to World Bank Staff through the following link. For data access, please contact the data provider via the link below.
    Access policy
    Data is limited-access and is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    Data URL
    https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/data/dataset/0067069/energy_infrastructure_stock_and_value
    Citation
    World Bank. Development Data Hub. Energy Infrastructure Stock and Value [dataset]. Accessed 2025. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/data/dataset/0067069/energy_infrastructure_stock_and_value
    The impact of infrastructure on development outcomes elasticity
    Name
    The impact of infrastructure on development outcomes elasticity
    Note
    Source: Compiled by the project team; primary data from the meta-analysis paper Foster et al. (2025) and World Bank/ESMAP Energy Planning Model (EPM). Access year: 2026. File location: Data/Raw/ImpliedE_Final.csv.
    Access policy
    Data is included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Open Access
    Citation
    Authors' compilation. 2026. "The impact of infrastructure on development outcomes elasticity" [dataset]. Compiled for project use from the World Bank, Foster et al. (2025), and the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program. 2026. Accessed 2026. World Bank, Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth.
    World Development Indicators
    Name
    World Development Indicators
    Note
    File location: Data/Raw and Data/Raw/00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData; 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/GDPContributor.xlsx, WDI_Data.csv; population_total.csv; WDI_Data_20260113.csv; WDI_exchange_Data.csv; 6710bd78-8724-415a-96bd-a77a873c48d7_Data.csv, d8a58af6-11b5-47d0-aa47-d469c1a87c1a_Data.csv. Access year: 2025. Indicators: Population, total; Gross Domestic Product.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
    Citation
    World Bank. 2025. World Development Indicators [dataset]. Accessed 2025. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
    World Energy Outlook 2025
    Name
    World Energy Outlook 2025
    Note
    Source: International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy Outlook (WEO) techno-economic and capital cost assumptions for power-generation technologies. Access year: 2025. File location: Data/Raw/1112_WEO_CAPEX.csv.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Terms of Use for Non-CC Material
    License URL
    https://www.iea.org/terms/terms-of-use-for-non-cc-material
    Data URL
    https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-and-climate-model/techno-economic-inputs
    Citation
    International Energy Agency (IEA). 2025. World Energy Outlook 2025: Techno-Economic Inputs [dataset]. Paris: IEA. Accessed 2025. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-and-climate-model/techno-economic-inputs
    Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2023
    Name
    Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2023
    Note
    Source: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable Power Generation Costs database/report series. File location: Data/Raw/1112_IRENA_Total_Installed_Cost.xlsx. Access year: 2025.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    License URL
    https://www.irena.org/terms-and-conditions
    Data URL
    https://www.irena.org/Publications/2024/Sep/Renewable-Power-Generation-Costs-in-2023
    Citation
    International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2024. Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2023 [dataset]. Abu Dhabi: IRENA. Accessed 2025. https://www.irena.org/Publications/2024/Sep/Renewable-Power-Generation-Costs-in-2023
    Transmission Cost Assumptions
    Name
    Transmission Cost Assumptions
    Note
    Source: Compiled from World Bank/ESMAP transmission cost assumptions and related power-system planning references. File location: Data/Raw/1112_CPI_Table 3.1.xlsx. Access year: 2026. Publicly available, locally compiled for project use.
    Access policy
    Data is included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Open Access
    Citation
    Authors' compilation. 2026. Transmission Cost Assumptions [dataset]. Compiled for project use from the World Bank and the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program. 2026. Accessed 2026. World Bank, Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth.
    Infrastructure Meta-Analysis Dataset
    Name
    Infrastructure Meta-Analysis Dataset
    Note
    The file was shared directly by the authors of the paper: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099510203092318515/pdf/IDU08a9d8af40f7d50487e0837208744c048b215.pdf. For access, contact: vfoster@worldbank.org, mvagliasindi@worldbank.org, ngorgulu@worldbank.org, stephane.straub@tse-fr.eu, jain.dhruv@tse-fr.eu. File location: Data/Raw/mradata.dta; 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/Meta-Analysis Estimates/ElasticityINF_INFFlagship_20250811.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    Citation
    Foster, V., Gorgulu, N., Jain, D., Straub, S., & Vagliasindi, M. (2025). Infrastructure Meta-Analysis Dataset [dataset]. Unpublished data. Access date: 2025.
    Ecuador Housing and Population Census 2015
    Name
    Ecuador Housing and Population Census 2015
    Note
    Source: Ecuador Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos (National Institute of Statistics and Census). Access year: 2025. File location: Data/Raw/population_ecu_admin2.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/censos/
    Data URL
    https://aplicaciones3.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/BIINEC-war/index.xhtml;jsessionid=CdQbqUGWsUP2WXqYAwIASj4o.undefined
    Citation
    Ecuador Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). 2025. Ecuador Housing and Population Census 2015 [dataset]. Accessed 2025. https://aplicaciones3.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/BIINEC-war/index.xhtml;jsessionid=CdQbqUGWsUP2WXqYAwIASj4o.undefined
    Digital Infrastructure Restricted Dataset
    Name
    Digital Infrastructure Restricted Dataset
    Note
    Source: Manually compiled by the project team from multiple data providers: proprietary data from TeleGeography (https://www2.telegeography.com/) and GlobalData (https://www.globaldata.com/), and publicly available data from TowerXchange (https://infraxchange.com/) and OpenCellId (https://www.opencellid.org/downloads.php). train.csv is a subset of the GlobalData proprietary dataset, limited to fiber optic cables. Ookla_data_countrylevel.dta: country-level broadband speed data purchased from Ookla Speedtest Intelligence. File location: 04_AdditionalRestrictedData/digital_total_stock_february_23.csv, digital_total_stock_february_23_time_series_panel.csv, submarine_clean_data.xlsx, ixp_costs.xlsx, fibercables_costsestimates.csv, CT_dealvalues_towerxchange 1.csv, full_dataset_with_explanatory.csv, train.csv, subcables_cost.xlsx, datacenters_final_2026.xlsx. Access year: 2025. For details on access, contact Estefania Belen Vergara Cobos (evergaracobos@worldbank.org). A variable list for the confidential datasets used in the project is included in the file variable_inventory.csv.
    Access policy
    Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    Citation
    Authors' compilation. 2025. Digital Infrastructure Dataset [dataset]. Unpublished data. Compiled by the project team from Telegeography, GlobalData, TowerXchange, and OpenCellId. Accessed 2025.
    Ecuador Admin2 Level Statistics
    Name
    Ecuador Admin2 Level Statistics
    Note
    Source: Author-generated dataset. File location: Data/Raw/admin2_ecuador_total.csv (originally at root; moved to restricted data pending review by the World Bank Copyright team). Access year: 2025. Status: Forthcoming on the World Bank Development Data Hub (DDH) under Official Use Only access.
    Access policy
    Data is forthcoming in the World Bank Development Data Hub under Official Use Only status.
    License
    Official Use Only
    Data URL
    Forthcoming at https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/
    Citation
    World Bank. Forthcoming. Ecuador Admin2 Level Statistics [dataset]. Forthcoming at the World Bank Development Data Hub. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/
    World Bank Official Boundaries
    Name
    World Bank Official Boundaries
    Note
    Source: World Bank Official Boundaries. Access dates: May and August 2025. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/Map/Admin0_Map/worldwide_countries.gpkg; 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/Map/Admin1_Map/WB_GAD_ADM1_Bdys.gpkg, WB_GADM_ADM1.gpkg; 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/Map/Admin1_Map/Archive/gadm_410.gpkg; 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/Map/Admin2_Map/WB_GADM_ADM2.gpkg; 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/Map/Maps_NewVersion/World Bank Official Boundaries - Admin 0.gpkg, World Bank Official Boundaries - Admin 0_all_layers.gpkg, World Bank Official Boundaries - Admin 1.gpkg, World Bank Official Boundaries - Admin 2.gpkg, World Bank Official Boundaries - NDLSA.gpkg, World Bank Official Boundaries - Ocean Mask.gpkg, WB_Official_Boundaries_Admin1_additional_columns.csv, WB_Official_Boundaries_Admin2_additional_columns.csv, DR0095370.csv. The interested user should download the files available in the link below and place them in the appropriate folder structure. The folder structure can be found in the file data_hash_report.csv
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but due to size restrictions is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/search/dataset/0038272/world-bank-official-boundaries
    Citation
    World Bank. 2025. World Bank Official Boundaries [dataset]. Accessed May and August 2025. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/search/dataset/0038272/world-bank-official-boundaries
    Investment and Capital Stock Dataset, 1960-2019
    Name
    Investment and Capital Stock Dataset, 1960-2019
    Note
    Source: IMF Investment and Capital Stock Dataset, 1960-2019 (Version May 2021). Access year: 2025. Additional manual calculations to back out the depreciation rate for road, railway, transmission, and distribution lines are included in sheets 2 and 3. Further details about the methodology are included in the report. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/IMFInvestmentStock/IMFInvestmentandCapitalStockDataset2021.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    The Use of IMF Data
    License URL
    https://www.imf.org/en/about/copyright-and-terms
    Data URL
    https://infrastructuregovern.imf.org/content/dam/PIMA/Knowledge-Hub/dataset/IMFInvestmentandCapitalStockDataset2021.xlsx
    Citation
    International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2021. IMF Investment and Capital Stock Dataset, 1960-2019 (Version May 2021) [dataset]. Accessed 2025. https://infrastructuregovern.imf.org/content/PIMA/Home/Knowledge-Hub/Publications.html
    World Bank Country and Lending Groups
    Name
    World Bank Country and Lending Groups
    Note
    Access year: 2025. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/CLASS.xlsx, CLASS_2025_10_07.xlsx, OGHIST_HistoricalClass.xlsx, OGHIST_HistoricalClass_2025_10_07.xlsx, historicincomegroups.csv, classy.csv; 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/WB_IncomeGroup_Regions/WorldBankCoutntries_11112025.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups
    Citation
    World Bank. 2025. World Bank Country and Lending Groups [dataset]. Accessed 2025. https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups
    Penn World Table 11.0
    Name
    Penn World Table 11.0
    Note
    Access date: December 1, 2025. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/PWT_2025-12-01T21-30_export.csv.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    Data URL
    https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/productivity/pwt/
    Citation
    Feenstra, R.C., Inklaar, R., & Timmer, M.P. 2025. Penn World Table 11.0 [dataset]. University of Groningen. Accessed December 1, 2025. https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/productivity/pwt/
    World Bank Doing Business Database
    Name
    World Bank Doing Business Database
    Note
    Access year: 2024. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/DoingBusiness_Data.csv.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://archive.doingbusiness.org/en/doingbusiness
    Citation
    World Bank. 2024. Doing Business Database [dataset]. Accessed 2024. https://archive.doingbusiness.org/en/doingbusiness
    World Bank Enterprise Surveys
    Name
    World Bank Enterprise Surveys
    Note
    Access year: 2024. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/Enterprise_Data.csv. Indicators: Percent of firms expected to give gifts to secure government contract; Value of gift expected to secure a government contract (% of contract value); Senior management time spent dealing with the requirements of government regulation (%); Percent of firms with at least 10% of government/state ownership. Aggregated data.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom license
    License URL
    https://login.enterprisesurveys.org/content/sites/financeandprivatesector/en/terms.html
    Data URL
    https://www.enterprisesurveys.org/
    Citation
    World Bank. 2024. Enterprise Surveys [dataset]. Accessed 2024. https://www.enterprisesurveys.org/
    Worldwide Governance Indicators
    Name
    Worldwide Governance Indicators
    Note
    Access year: 2024. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/Governance_Data.csv.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://databank.worldbank.org/source/worldwide-governance-indicators
    Citation
    World Bank. 2024. Worldwide Governance Indicators [dataset]. Accessed 2024. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/worldwide-governance-indicators
    ILOSTAT Database
    Name
    ILOSTAT Database
    Note
    Source: International Labour Organization (ILO), ILOSTAT. Files used: ILO_Data.xlsx (access year: 2026), LAC_4HRL_ECO_CUR_NB_A-20241217T1929.dta (access year: 2024), EAR_4HRL_SEX_OCU_CUR_NB_A-20241217T1932.dta (access year: 2024). Added in the README; downloaded directly from the ILOSTAT website. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/ILO_Data.xlsx, LAC_4HRL_ECO_CUR_NB_A-20241217T1929.dta, EAR_4HRL_SEX_OCU_CUR_NB_A-20241217T1932.dta.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.ilo.org/global/copyright/lang--en/index.htm
    Data URL
    https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/
    Citation
    International Labour Organization (ILO). 2026. ILOSTAT Database [dataset]. Geneva: ILO. Accessed 2026. https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/
    International Comparison Program Dataset
    Name
    International Comparison Program Dataset
    Note
    Files location: Data/Raw/CountryData/e8392a03-3c8e-4120-9f05-b1a53380ad09_Data.csv. Access year: 2025.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp
    Citation
    World Bank. 2025. International Comparison Program (ICP) [dataset]. Accessed 2025. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp
    Country Risk Premiums and Cost of Capital
    Name
    Country Risk Premiums and Cost of Capital
    Note
    Source: Professor Aswath Damodaran, NYU Stern School of Business. File used: Cost of Capital.xlsx. Access year: 2026. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/Meta-Analysis Estimates/Cost of Capital.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Open Access
    Data URL
    https://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/New_Home_Page/datafile/ctryprem.html
    Citation
    Damodaran, A. 2026. Country Risk Premiums and Cost of Capital [dataset]. Accessed 2026. https://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/New_Home_Page/datafile/ctryprem.html
    Global Competitiveness Index dataset
    Name
    Global Competitiveness Index dataset
    Note
    Access year: 2025. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/construction_BOS_data.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    License URL
    https://www.weforum.org/terms-of-use
    Data URL
    https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf
    Citation
    World Economic Forum. 2019. The Global Competitiveness Report [dataset]. Geneva: WEF. Accessed 2025. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf
    Global Labor Statistics
    Name
    Global Labor Statistics
    Note
    Source: Global Labor Database and ILOSTAT data. Authors' compilation. Access year: 2025. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/labor cost final.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data is included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/labour-costs/
    Citation
    Authors' compilation. 2025. Global Labor Statistics [dataset]. Compiled with information from the International Labour Organization and World Bank Global Labor Database. Accessed 2025. World Bank, Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth.
    International Country Risk Guide (ICRG)
    Name
    International Country Risk Guide (ICRG)
    Note
    Source: International Country Risk Guide (ICRG), PRS Group. Files used: ICRG_EconCountryData.csv, ICRG_PRS.xlsx, ICRG_RiskData.csv. Access year: 2025. Added in the README; downloaded directly from the PRS Group website. File location: 00_Non Sectoral Data/Raw/CountryData/ICRG_EconCountryData.csv, ICRG_PRS.xlsx, ICRG_RiskData.csv.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    Data URL
    https://www.prsgroup.com
    Citation
    PRS Group. 2025. International Country Risk Guide (ICRG) [dataset]. Accessed 2025. https://www.prsgroup.com
    Côte d'Ivoire Population Density, 1 km resolution, UN-adjusted
    Name
    Côte d'Ivoire Population Density, 1 km resolution, UN-adjusted
    Note
    Access date: May 1, 2025. File location: Data/Confidential/Map 4_7/civ_pd_2020_1km_UNadj_ASCII_XYZ/civ_pd_2020_1km_UNadj_ASCII_XYZ.csv, ci.json, ci_shp.zip. These data are publicly available and can be downloaded from the following link. However, map 4.7 in the paper is produced mainly from restricted data; therefore, the data is not included in the reproducibility package.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but since most data needed to produce the figure is confidential, this dataset is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    Data URL
    https://hub.worldpop.org/geodata/summary?id=46892
    Citation
    WorldPop. 2020. Côte d'Ivoire Population Density, 1 km resolution, UN-adjusted [dataset]. WorldPop, University of Southampton. Accessed May 1, 2025. https://hub.worldpop.org/geodata/summary?id=46892
    Côte d'Ivoire geoBoundaries ADM2
    Name
    Côte d'Ivoire geoBoundaries ADM2
    Note
    Access date: May 1, 2025. File location: Data/Confidential/Map 4_7/geoBoundaries-CIV-ADM2-all/geoBoundaries-CIV-ADM2.shp, geoBoundaries-CIV-ADM2.geojson, geoBoundaries-CIV-ADM2_simplified.shp. These data are publicly available and can be downloaded from the following link. However, map 4.7 in the paper is produced mainly from restricted data; therefore, the data is not included in the reproducibility package.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but since most data needed to produce the figure is confidential, this dataset is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    Data URL
    https://data.humdata.org/dataset/2af1d88a-3a97-4d9d-b649-7b74e69985a1/resource/00342049-3fc4-4077-87f0-5769d1acafb2
    Citation
    Humanitarian Data Exchange. 2025. Côte d'Ivoire geoBoundaries ADM2 [dataset]. Accessed May 1, 2025. https://data.humdata.org/dataset/2af1d88a-3a97-4d9d-b649-7b74e69985a1/resource/00342049-3fc4-4077-87f0-5769d1acafb2
    Cell Tower Database
    Name
    Cell Tower Database
    Note
    Source: OpenCelliD cell tower database. See Maps Manual for additional details. All files are currently stored under NDA until the Rights team clearance is obtained. For access, contact Estefania Belen Vergara Cobos (evergaracobos@worldbank.org). File location: Map 4_7/ct_clipped_africa_civ.gpkg; Map2_3/basestations.gpkg, cell_towers_asia.csv. These data are publicly available and can be downloaded from the following link. However, map 4.7 in the paper is produced mainly from restricted data; therefore, the data is not included in the reproducibility package. A list of variables is included in variable_inventory.csv.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but since most data needed to produce the figure is confidential, this dataset is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
    License URL
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
    Data URL
    https://www.opencellid.org/downloads.php
    Citation
    OpenCelliD. 2025. Cell Tower Database [dataset]. Accessed January 20, 2025. https://www.opencellid.org/downloads.php
    Data Center Locations
    Name
    Data Center Locations
    Note
    Access date: January 20, 2025. For more information, contact Estefania Belen Vergara Cobos (evergaracobos@worldbank.org). File location: Map 4_7/DataCenters.gpkg; Map2_3/datacenters.gpkg.
    Access policy
    Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    Data URL
    https://www.telegeography.com/
    Citation
    TeleGeography. 2025. Data Center Locations [dataset]. Unpublished data. https://www.telegeography.com/. Accessed January 20, 2025.
    Internet Exchange Points Dataset
    Name
    Internet Exchange Points Dataset
    Note
    Source: World Bank Development Data Catalog, Internet Exchange Points dataset. File location: Map 4_7/ITU_IXP.gpkg; Map2_3/itu_ixp.gpkg.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but since most data needed to produce the figure is confidential, this dataset is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/search/dataset/0037932/internet-exchange-points
    Citation
    World Bank. 2025. Internet Exchange Points [dataset]. Accessed January 20, 2025. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/search/dataset/0037932/internet-exchange-points
    International Telecommunication Union Broadband Maps
    Name
    International Telecommunication Union Broadband Maps
    Note
    Source: ITU Broadband Maps (BBmaps), transmission network layer. For more information on these data, contact Estefania Belen Vergara Cobos (evergaracobos@worldbank.org). File location: Map 4_7/ITU_transmission_lines.gpkg; Map2_3/itu_transmission_lines.gpkg; Map 4_7/submarinecables.gpkg; Map2_3/submarinecables.gpkg; 04_AdditionalRestrictedData/itu_transmission_lines.geojson, itu_transmission_lines_validated.geojson.
    Access policy
    Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    Data URL
    https://bbmaps.itu.int/bbmaps/
    Citation
    International Telecommunication Union. 2025. International Telecommunication Union Broadband Maps (BBmaps) – Terrestrial Fiber Optic Cable Layer [dataset]. Unpublished data. https://bbmaps.itu.int/bbmaps. Accessed February 15, 2025.
    Africa Continental Shapefile
    Name
    Africa Continental Shapefile
    Note
    File location: Map 4.6/Africa/Africa/base/africa.shp.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but since most data needed to produce the figure is confidential, this dataset is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Open Access
    Data URL
    https://open.africa/dataset/africa-shapefiles
    Citation
    open.africa. 2025. Africa Shapefiles [dataset]. https://open.africa/dataset/africa-shapefiles. Accessed January 10, 2025
    Global Subnational Atlas of Poverty
    Name
    Global Subnational Atlas of Poverty
    Note
    File location: Map 4.6/Africa/Africa/base/gsap_2021.shp, gsap_2021_clipped_africa.shp; Map 4.6/Africa/Africa/base/GSAP_AM24_2019/GSAP_AM24_2019.shp.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but since most data needed to produce the figure is confidential, this dataset is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/legal/terms-of-use-for-datasets
    Data URL
    https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/search/dataset/0042041/global_subnational_poverty_atlas_gsap
    Citation
    World Bank. 2021. Global Subnational Atlas of Poverty (GSAP) [dataset]. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/search/dataset/0042041/global_subnational_poverty_atlas_gsap. Accessed January 10, 2025.
    WorldPop Population Raster 2025
    Name
    WorldPop Population Raster 2025
    Note
    Source: WorldPop population raster, 2025. Access date: January 10, 2025. File used: pop_2025.tif. File location: Map 4.6/Africa/Africa/base/pop_2025.tif.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available, but since most data needed to produce the figure is confidential, this dataset is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    Data URL
    https://www.worldpop.org/datacatalog/
    Citation
    WorldPop. 2025. WorldPop Population Raster 2025 [dataset]. Accessed January 10, 2025. https://www.worldpop.org/datacatalog/
    Confidential Infrastructure Cost Data
    Name
    Confidential Infrastructure Cost Data
    Note
    Source: GlobalData (https://www.globaldata.com/). Proprietary data purchased by the Infrastructure Chief Economist Office. File location: Data/Confidential Data/datacenters_usd2024_final_november.xlsx, df_gcd_roads.csv, df_rail.csv, ixp_cost_per_ixp2.xlsx, ran_capital_stock.csv, ran_capital_stock_new.csv, submarine_usd2024_final_december.xlsx.
    Access policy
    Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution, and it is not included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Custom License
    Citation
    GlobalData. 2025. Confidential Infrastructure Cost Data [dataset]. Unpublished data. https://www.globaldata.com/. Accessed January 10, 2025.
    Global Fixed and Mobile Network Performance Maps
    Name
    Global Fixed and Mobile Network Performance Maps
    Note
    Source: Speedtest by Ookla, Global Fixed and Mobile Network Performance Maps, Country-level aggregated broadband speed data. Access date: February 15, 2025. File location: 04_AdditionalRestrictedData/Ookla_data_countrylevel.dta.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
    License URL
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
    Data URL
    https://registry.opendata.aws/speedtest-global-performance/
    Citation
    Ookla. 2025. Speedtest by Ookla – Global Fixed and Mobile Network Performance Maps, Open Dataset [dataset]. https://registry.opendata.aws/speedtest-global-performance. Accessed February 15, 2025
    OpenStreetMap - Road Network Data
    Name
    OpenStreetMap - Road Network Data
    Note
    Hispaniola Road Network (Figure 3.S1): OpenStreetMap contributors, downloaded via GeoFabrik (Haiti and Dominican Republic extract). Road network data (road_network.shp) downloaded July 1, 2025. Converted to shapefile and visualized in QGIS. File location: Figure 3.S1 The Roads of Hispaniola/Materials/Shapefiles/road_network.shp. Uzbekistan and Dominican Republic Road Networks (Figure 4.8): downloaded via GeoFabrik. Uzbekistan road network: https://download.geofabrik.de/asia/uzbekistan.html. Dominican Republic road network: https://download.geofabrik.de/central-america/haiti-and-domrep.html. Converted to shapefiles and visualized in QGIS. File location: Figure 4.8 Subnational Distribution of Line Transport Infrastructure/Materials/shapefiles/uzbekistan_roads.shp, domrep_roads.shp.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Open Data Commons Open Database License (ODbL)
    License URL
    https://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/
    Data URL
    https://download.geofabrik.de/central-america/haiti-and-domrep.html
    Citation
    OpenStreetMap contributors via GeoFabrik. 2025. Haiti and Dominican Republic Road Network [dataset]. Downloaded July 1, 2025. Licensed ODbL. https://download.geofabrik.de/central-america/haiti-and-domrep.html
    WorldPop Population Raster 2025 – Haiti, Uzbekistan and Dominican Republic, 100m Constrained Estimates
    Name
    WorldPop Population Raster 2025 – Haiti, Uzbekistan and Dominican Republic, 100m Constrained Estimates
    Note
    WorldPop 2025, 100m constrained population estimates. Figure 3.S1: Haiti: https://data.worldpop.org/GIS/Population/Global_2015_2030/R2025A/2025/HTI/v1/100m/constrained/. Dominican Republic: https://data.worldpop.org/GIS/Population/Global_2015_2030/R2025A/2025/DOM/v1/100m/constrained/. File location: Figure 3.S1 The Roads of Hispaniola/Materials/Shapefiles/ (population raster files). Figure 4.8 Uzbekistan: https://data.worldpop.org/GIS/Population/Global_2015_2030/R2025A/2025/UZB/v1/100m/constrained/uzb_pop_2025_CN_100m_R2025A_v1.tif. Dominican Republic: https://data.worldpop.org/GIS/Population/Global_2015_2030/R2025A/2025/DOM/v1/100m/constrained/dom_pop_2025_CN_100m_R2025A_v1.tif. Access date: 2025. File location: Figure 4.8 Subnational Distribution of Line Transport Infrastructure/Materials/shapefiles/uzbekistan_population_2025.tif, domrep_population_2025.tif.
    Access policy
    Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.
    License
    Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
    License URL
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    Data URL
    https://www.worldpop.org/datacatalog/
    Citation
    WorldPop. 2025. WorldPop Population Raster 2025 – Haiti and Dominican Republic, 100m Constrained Estimates [dataset]. https://www.worldpop.org/datacatalog. Accessed 2025.
    Nigeria Subnational Transport Shapefiles
    Name
    Nigeria Subnational Transport Shapefiles
    Note
    Source: Administrative boundaries from World Bank Cartography Unit, shared in \Map\.. Road density, rail density, and transportation asset density are derived from the combination of administrative boundaries and results of results_v4.csv (shared data), processed and visualized in QGIS. Files used: road.shp, rail.shp, assetdensity.shp, mask.shp. Figure 3.S1 The Roads of Hispaniola/Materials/Shapefiles/subnational_results_b_c.shp.
    Access policy
    Data is included in the reproducibility package.
    Citation
    Author's compilation. 2025. Nigeria Subnational Transport Shapefiles [dataset]. Compiled for project use from the World Bank Cartography Unit. Accessed 2026. World Bank, Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth.
    National Borders Shapefiles
    Name
    National Borders Shapefiles
    Note
    File location: Figure 3.S1 The Roads of Hispaniola/Materials/Shapefiles/national_borders.shp. Figure 4.8: File location: Figure 4.8 Subnational Distribution of Line Transport Infrastructure/Materials/shapefiles/borders_background.shp, borders_uzbekistan_domrep.shp.
    Access policy
    Data is included in the reproducibility package.
    Citation
    Author's compilation. 2025. National Borders Shapefiles [dataset]. Compiled for project use from the World Bank Cartography Unit. Accessed 2026. World Bank, Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth.
    Data statement

    Some data is restricted and has not been included in the reproducibility package. For more details, please refer to the README file.

    Description

    Output
    Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth
    Title
    Infrastructure Foundations From Current Assets To Future Growth
    Authors
    Author Affiliation Email
    Xinxin Lyu World Bank xlyu@worldbank.org
    Stephane Straub World Bank sstraub@worldbank.org
    He He World Bank hhe2@worldbank.org
    Yue Li World Bank yli7@worldbank.org
    Jevgenijs Steinbuks World Bank jsteinbuks@worldbank.org
    Estefania Vergara Cobos World Bank evergaracobos@worldbank.org
    Manuel Garcia Santana World Bank mgarciasantana@worldbank.org
    Harris Selod World Bank hselod@worldbank.org
    Chris Dann World Bank cdann@worldbank.org
    Date of production

    2026-05-19

    Scope and coverage

    Geographic locations
    Location Code
    World WLD
    Keywords
    Infrastructure Energy Digital Transport Construction Cost

    Disclaimer

    Disclaimer

    The materials in the reproducibility packages are distributed as they were prepared by the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this event do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, the Executive Directors of the World Bank, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the materials included in the reproducibility package.

    Access and rights

    License
    Name URI
    MIT License https://opensource.org/license/mit
    World Bank IGO Rider https://github.com/worldbank/metadata-editor/blob/main/WB-IGO-RIDER.md

    Contacts

    Contacts
    Name Affiliation Email
    Xinxin Lyu World Bank xlyu@worldbank.org
    Reproducibility WBG World Bank reproducibility@worldbank.org

    Information on metadata

    Producers
    Name Abbreviation Affiliation Role
    Reproducibility WBG DECDI World Bank - Development Impact Department Verification and preparation of metadata
    Date of Production

    2026-05-19

    Document version

    1

    Citation

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