Reproducibility package for Inequality Of Opportunity In South Asia: The Puzzle Of Educational Gains Without Consumption Gains

World Development Indicators (WDI)

Source: World Bank. Indicators used: Labor force participation rate, total (% of total population ages 15-64) (modeled ILO estimate) (SL.TLF.ACTI.ZS), Consumer price index (2010 = 100) (FP.CPI.TOTL), Population ages 15-64, total (SP.POP.1564.TO). Access date: January 28, 2025 (labor force participation rate), August 22, 2024 (consumer price index), and August 5, 2022 (population). File location: "data\raw\auxiliary". File names: cpi2010.csv; ILO_lfp_model.csv; population.csv.

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC-BY 4.0)

https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators

World Bank. (n.d.). "World Development Indicators" [dataset]. World Bank. Available at https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators. Accessed on August 5, 2022, August 22, 2024, and January 28, 2025.

Labor Force Participation Rate (Labor Force Survey Estimate)

Source: ILOSTAT’s Labour Force Statistics (LFS). Access date: February 1, 2025. File location: "data\raw\auxiliary". File names: "ILO_lfp_lfs.csv".

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)

https://rplumber.ilo.org/data/indicator/?id=EAP_DWAP_SEX_AGE_RT_A&lang=en&type=label&format=.csv&channel=ilostat&title=labour-force-participation-rate-by-sex-and-age-annual

International Labour Organization. (2020). ILO modelled estimates database, ILOSTAT [database]. Available from https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/. Accessed on February 1, 2025.

Gini estimates

Source: World Bank’s Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP). Access date: October 28, 2025 (release 20250930_2017_01_02_PROD) and May 7, 2025 (release 20240627_2017_01_02_PROD). File location: "data\raw\auxiliary". File names: pip_20240627_2017_01_02_PROD.csv and pip_20250930_2017_01_02_PROD.csv.

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)

https://pip.worldbank.org/

World Bank. (2025). Poverty and Inequality Platform (versions 20250930_2017 and release 20240627_2017) [dataset]. World Bank Group. Available at: www.pip.worldbank.org. Accessed on October 28, 2025 and May 7, 2025.

Inequality of Opportunity Estimates

Source: Global Estimates of Opportunity and Mobility. Access date: February 7, 2025. File location: "data\raw\auxiliary". File name: GEOM.csv.

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://geom.ecineq.org/

GEOM: Global Estimates of Opportunity and Mobility, London School of Economics and Political Science and University of Bari, Version 1, released on June 6th 2024.

Survey of the Afghan People (2004-2019)

Source: Asia Foundation. Access date: November 18, 2022. File location: "data\raw\auxiliary_non_public". File name: "2019_Afghan_data_STATA.dta".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://dataverse.ada.edu.au/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.26193/VDDO0X

Asia Foundation. (2019). Survey of the Afghan People (2004-2019) [dataset]. Available at https://dataverse.ada.edu.au/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.26193/VDDO0X. Accessed on November 18, 2022.

Manual mappings across different geographic levels and demographic groups

Source: Author’s construction. File location: "data\raw\auxiliary\geo_level" and "data\raw\auxiliary\demo".

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) – Raw

Source: Central Statistics Organization (CSO). Years: 2007-2008, 2011-2012. Access date: August 27, 2021. File location: "data\raw\HHS\AFG\NRVA".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/935; https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/5230

Central Statistics Organization (CSO). National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA), Afghanistan 2007–2008 and 2011–2012 [dataset]. Available from the IHSN Microdata Catalog: https://catalog.ihsn.org/. Accessed on August 27, 2021.

National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) – Harmonized

Source: Central Statistics Organization (CSO), accessed via the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Years: 2007-2008, 2011-2012. Access date: January 30, 2023. File location: "data\raw\HHS\AFG\SARMD". File names: AFG_2008_NRVA_v01_M_v01_A_SARMD_IND.dta; and AFG_2012_NRVA_v01_M_v01_A_SARMD_IND.dta.

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Central Statistics Organization (CSO). National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA), Afghanistan 2007–2008 and 2011–2012 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Available from: https://worldbank.github.io/SARMD_guidelines/datalibweb-getting-access-to-sarmd.html. Accessed on January 30, 2023.

Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey (ALCS) - Raw

Source: Central Statistics Organization (CSO). Years: 2013-2014, 2016-2017. Access date: August 27, 2021. File location: "data\raw\HHS\AFG\ALCS".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/6557; https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/8014

Central Statistics Organization (CSO). Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey (ALCS), Afghanistan 2013–2014 and 2016–2017 [dataset]. Available from the IHSN Microdata Catalog: https://catalog.ihsn.org/. Accessed on August 27, 2021.

Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey (ALCS) - Harmonized

Source: Central Statistics Organization (CSO), accessed via the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Years: 2013-2014. Access date: January 28, 2023. File location: "data\raw\HHS\AFG\SARMD". File name: "AFG_2016_LCS_v01_M_v01_A_SARMD_IND.dta".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Central Statistics Organization (CSO). Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey (ALCS), Afghanistan 2013-2014 and 2016–2017 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Available from: https://worldbank.github.io/SARMD_guidelines/datalibweb-getting-access-to-sarmd.html. Accessed on January 28, 2023.

Integrated Expenditure and Labor Force Survey (IELFS) - Raw

Source: National Statistics and Information Authority (NSIA). Year: 2020. Access date: August 27, 2021. File location: "data\raw\HHS\AFG\IELFS".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://fscluster.org/afghanistan/document/income-and-expenditure-labor

National Statistics and Information Authority (NSIA). Integrated Expenditure and Labor Force Survey (IELFS), Afghanistan 2020 [dataset]. Available from https://fscluster.org/afghanistan/document/income-and-expenditure-labor. Accessed on August 27, 2021.

Household Income and Expenditure Survey (BGD-HIES) - Harmonized

Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), accessed via the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Years: 2000, 2005, 2010, 2016-2017, 2022. Access date: April 26, 2022 (2000-2017) and November 3, 2023 (2022). File location: "data\raw\HHS\BGD\SARMD".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS). Household Income and Expenditure Survey (BGD-HIES), Bangladesh 2000, 2005, 2010, 2016-2017 and 2022 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Available from: https://worldbank.github.io/SARMD_guidelines/datalibweb-getting-access-to-sarmd.html. Accessed on April 26, 2022 and November 3, 2023.

Labor Force Survey (BGD-LFS) - Raw

Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS). Years: 2005-2006, 2010, 2013, 2015-2016, 2016-2017, 2022. Access date: December 13, 2025 (2005, 2010, 2013, 2015, 2022) and January 14, 2026 (2016). File location: "data\raw\LFS\BGD\LFS" and "data\raw\LFS\BGD\QLFS".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://webapps.ilo.org/surveyLib/index.php/catalog/7874; https://webapps.ilo.org/surveyLib/index.php/catalog/7873; https://webapps.ilo.org/surveyLib/index.php/catalog/7872; https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/7277; https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/8021; https://webapps.ilo.org/surveyLib/index.php/catalog/8538

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS). Labor Force Survey (BGD-LFS), Bangladesh: 2005-2006, 2010, 2013, 2015-2016, 2016-2017, 2022 [dataset]. Available from the IHSN Microdata Catalog and the ILOSTAT (ILO Department of Statistics): https://webapps.ilo.org/surveyLib/; https://catalog.ihsn.org/. Accessed on December 13, 2025 and January 14, 2026.

Labor Force Survey (BGD-LFS) - Harmonized

Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), accessed via the Global Labor Database (GLD). Years: 2005-2006, 2010, 2013, 2015-2016, 2016-2017, 2022. Access date: January 25, 2026 (2005, 2010, 2013, 2016) and December 13, 2025 (2015, 2022). File location: "data\raw\LFS\BGD\GLD".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS). Labor Force Survey (BGD-LFS), Bangladesh 2005-2006, 2010, 2013, 2015-2016, 2016-2017 and 2022 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the Global Labor Database (GLD). Available from: https://worldbank.github.io/gld/Support/A%20-%20Guides%20and%20Documentation/GLD%20Manual%20Files/GLD%20content%2C%20storage%2C%20and%20access.html#data-storage-platforms-and-access-rules. Accessed on January 25, 2026 and December 13, 2025.

Bhutan Living Standards Survey (BLSS) - Raw

Source: National Statistics Bureau (NSB). Years: 2003, 2007, 2012, 2017, 2022. Access date: August 27, 2021 (2003, 2007, 2012, 2017) and March 6, 2025 (2022). File location: "data\raw\HHS\BTN\BLSS".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/23; https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/24; https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/3250.

National Statistics Bureau (NSB). Bhutan Living Standards Survey (BLSS), Bhutan 2003, 2007, 2012, 2017, 2022 [dataset]. Available from the IHSN Microdata Catalog: https://catalog.ihsn.org/. Accessed on August 27, 2021 and March 6, 2025.

Bhutan Living Standards Survey (BLSS) - Harmonized

Source: National Statistics Bureau (NSB), accessed via the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Years: 2003, 2007, 2012, 2017, 2022. Access date: December 18, 2022 (2003, 2007, 2012, 2017) and March 6, 2025 (2022). File location: "data\raw\HHS\BTN\SARMD".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

National Statistics Bureau (NSB). Bhutan Living Standards Survey (BLSS), Bhutan 2003, 2007, 2012, 2017, 2022 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Available from: https://worldbank.github.io/SARMD_guidelines/datalibweb-getting-access-to-sarmd.html. Accessed on December 18, 2022 and March 6, 2025.

Labor Force Survey (BHT-LFS) - Harmonized

Source: National Statistics Bureau (NSB), accessed via South Asia Labor Force Surveys repository (SARLAB). Years: 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022. Access date: June 5, 2025. File location: "data\raw\LFS\BHT\SARLAB". File names: BTN_2018_LFS_v01_M_v01_A_SARLAB_IND.dta, BTN_2019_LFS_v01_M_v01_A_SARLAB_IND.dta, BTN_2020_LFS_v01_M_v01_A_SARLAB_IND.dta, BTN_2022_LFS_v01_M_v01_A_SARLAB_IND.dta.

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

National Statistics Bureau (NSB). Labor Force Survey (BHT-LFS), Bhutan 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Region Labor Force Surveys. Accessed on June 5, 2025.

India Human Development Survey (IHDS) - Raw

Source: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) - University of Maryland. Years: 2005, 2011. Access date: August 16, 2025. File location: "data\raw\HHS\IND\IHDS".

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

CC BY-NC 4.0

https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/DSDR/studies/22626; https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/DSDR/studies/36151

Desai, Sonalde, Vanneman, Reeve, and National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi. India Human Development Survey (IHDS), 2005. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2018-08-08. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR22626.v12 [https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/DSDR/studies/22626] Desai, Sonalde, and Vanneman, Reeve. India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS-II), 2011-12. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2018-08-08. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR36151.v6 [https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/DSDR/studies/36151]

Indian National Sample Survey (NSS) - Raw

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Years: 1993-1994, 2004-2005, 2009-2010, 2011-2012. Access date: April 27, 2025 (1993) and January 23, 2023 (2004, 2009, 2011). File location: "data\raw\HHS\IND\NSS".

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

http://www.icssrdataservice.in/datarepository/index.php/catalog/8; http://www.icssrdataservice.in/datarepository/index.php/catalog/3; http://www.icssrdataservice.in/datarepository/index.php/catalog/89; http://www.icssrdataservice.in/datarepository/index.php/catalog/135

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). National Sample Survey (NSS), India 1993-1994 (50th), 2004-2005 (61st), 2009-2010 (66th), 2011-2012 (68th) [dataset]. Available from ICSSR Data Service: Social Science Data Repository: http://www.icssrdataservice.in/datarepository/. Accessed on April 27, 2025 and January 23, 2023.

Indian National Sample Survey (NSS) - Harmonized

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Accessed via the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD) and the Global Monitoring Database (GMD). Years: 1993-1994, 2004-2005, 2009-2010, 2011-2012. Access date: April 21, 2025 (1993-1994), April 18, 2025 (2004-2005, 2009-2010) and March 6, 2025 (2011-2012). File location: "data\raw\HHS\IND\SARMD". File names: IND_1993_NSS50-SCH1.0_v01_M_v04_A_SARMD_IND.dta, IND_2004_NSS61-SCH1.0_v01_M_v05_A_SARMD_IND_GMD_ALL.dta, IND_2009_NSS66-SCH1.0-T1_v01_M_v05_A_SARMD_IND_GMD_ALL.dta, IND_2011_NSS-SCH1_V01_M_V06_A_GMD_ALL.dta, IND_2011_NSS-SCH2_v02_M_v01_A_GMD_ALL.dta.

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). National Sample Survey (NSS), India 1993-1994 (50th), 2004-2005 (61st), 2009-2010 (66th), 2011-2012 (68th) [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD) and the Global Monitoring Database (GMD). Accessed on April 21, 2025, April 18, 2025 and March 6, 2025.

Indian Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) - Raw

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Years: 2022-2023. Access date: March 6, 2025. File location: "data\raw\HHS\IND\HCES\2022".

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

CC BY-NC 4.0

https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/224

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES), India 2022-2023 [dataset]. Available from the Government of India of Statistics and Programme Implementation Online Microdata Library: https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/224. Accessed on March 6, 2025.

Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) - Harmonized

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), accessed via the Global Monitoring Database (GMD). Years: 2022-2023. Access date: March 6, 2025. File location: "data\raw\HHS\IND\SARMD". File names: IND_2022_HCES_v02_M_v01_A_GMD_ALL.dta.

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES), India 2022-2023 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the Global Monitoring Database (GMD). Accessed on March 6, 2025.

Indian Employment and Unemployment Survey (EUS) - Raw

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Years: 1987-1988, 1993-1994, 1999-2000, 2004-2005, 2005-2006, 2007-2008, 2009-2010, 2011-2012. Access date: December 13, 2025 (1987-1988, 1993-1994, 1999-2000, 2004-2005, 2005-2006, 2007-2008) and January 14, 2026 (2009-2010, 2011-2012). File location: "data\raw\LFS\IND\EUS".

Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/55; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/77; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/90 ; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/109; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/113; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/117; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/124; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/127

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Employment and Unemployment Survey (EUS), India 1987-1988; 1993-1994; 1999-2000 2004-2005; 2005-2006; 2007-2008; 2009-2010 and 2011-2012 [dataset]. Available from the MOSPI Microdata Catalog: https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/. Accessed on December 13, 2025 and January 14, 2026.

Indian Employment and Unemployment Survey (EUS) - Harmonized

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), accessed via the Global Labor Database (GLD). Years: 1983, 1987-1988, 1993-1994, 1999-2000, 2004-2005, 2005-2006, 2007-2008, 2009-2010, 2011-2012. Access date: January 25, 2026. File location: "data\raw\LFS\IND\GLD". File names: IND_1983_EUS_V01_M_V07_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_1987_EUS_V01_M_V06_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_1993_EUS_V01_M_V06_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2004_EUS_V01_M_V05_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2005_EUS_V01_M_V05_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2007_EUS_V01_M_V05_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2009_EUS_V01_M_V07_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2011_EUS_V01_M_V07_A_GLD_ALL.dta.

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Employment and Unemployment Survey (EUS), India 1983-1984; 1987-1988; 1993-1994; 2004-2005 ; 2005-2006; 2007-2008; 2009-2010; 2011-2012 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the Global Labor Database (GLD). Available from https://worldbank.github.io/gld/Support/A%20-%20Guides%20and%20Documentation/GLD%20Manual%20Files/GLD%20content%2C%20storage%2C%20and%20access.html#data-storage-platforms-and-access-rules. Accessed on January 25, 2026.

Indian Periodic Labor Force Survey (PLFS) - Raw

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Years: 2017-2018, 2018-2019, 2019-2020, 2020-2021, 2021-2022, 2022-2023. Access date: December 13, 2025. File location: "data\raw\LFS\IND\PLFS".

Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/204; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/216; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/217; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/206; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/214; https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/index.php/catalog/210

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Periodic Labor Force Survey (PLFS). India 2017-2018, 2018-2019, 2019-2020, 2020-2021, 2021-2022, 2022-2023 [dataset]. Available from the MOSPI Microdata Catalog: https://microdata.gov.in/NADA/. Accessed on December 13, 2025

Indian Periodic Labor Force Survey (PLFS) - Harmonized

Source: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), accessed via the Global Labor Database (GLD). Years: 2017-2018, 2018-2019, 2019-2020, 2020-2021, 2021-2022, 2022-2023. Access date: January 25, 2026. File location: "data\raw\LFS\IND\GLD". File names: IND_2017_PLFS_V02_M_V04_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2018_PLFS_V02_M_V04_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2019_PLFS_V02_M_V04_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2020_PLFS_V01_M_V04_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2021_PLFS_V01_M_V05_A_GLD_ALL.dta, IND_2022_PLFS_V01_M_V02_A_GLD_ALL.dta.

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). Periodic Labor Force Survey (PLFS), India 2017-2018, 2018-2019, 2019-2020, 2020-2021, 2021-2022, 2022-2023 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the Global Labor Database (GLD) available from https://worldbank.github.io/gld/Support/A%20-%20Guides%20and%20Documentation/GLD%20Manual%20Files/GLD%20content%2C%20storage%2C%20and%20access.html#data-storage-platforms-and-access-rules. Accessed on January 25, 2026.

Labor Force Survey (NPL - LFS) - Raw

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Years: 1998-1999, 2008-2009, 2017-2018. Access date: December 13, 2025. File location: "data\raw\LFS\NPL\LFS".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/1; https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/2; https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/88

Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Labor Force Survey (NPL- LFS) Nepal 1998-1999, 2008-2009, 2017-2018 [dataset]. Available from https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/. Accessed on December 13, 2025.

Labor Force Survey (NPL - LFS) - Harmonized

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), accessed via the Global Labor Database (GLD). Years: 1998-1999, 2008-2009, 2017-2018. Access date: January 25, 2026 (1998-1999, 2008-2009) and December 13, 2025 (2017-2018). File location: "data\raw\LFS\NPL\GLD".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Labor Force Survey. Nepal 1998-1999, 2008-2009, 2017-2018 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the Global Labor Database (GLD). Available from https://worldbank.github.io/gld/Support/A%20-%20Guides%20and%20Documentation/GLD%20Manual%20Files/GLD%20content%2C%20storage%2C%20and%20access.html#data-storage-platforms-and-access-rules. Accessed on January 25,2026 and December 13, 2025.

Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS) - Raw

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Years: 1995-1996, 2003-2004, 2010-11, 2022-2023. Access date: December 5, 2022 (1995-1996, 2003-2004), August 27, 2021 (2010-11) and April 3, 2025 (2022-2023). File location: "data\raw\HHS\NPL\NLSS".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/7; https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/9; https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/37; https://data.nsonepal.gov.np/dataset/b6c3c19b-4b15-44bf-8653-1571e76dad14/resource/e2d52301-1c25-498b-8732-4326c62a2372/download/nlss-iv.pdf

Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS). Nepal. 1995-1996, 2003-2004, 2010-11, 2022-2023 [dataset]. Available from Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) on https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/. Accessed on December 5, 2022, August 27, 2021, and April 3, 2025.

Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS) - Harmonized

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), accessed via South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Years: 1995-1996, 2003-2004, 2010-11, 2022-2023. Access date: December 5, 2022 (1995-1996, 2003-2004), August 27, 2021 (2010-11) and April 3, 2025 (2022-2023). File location: "data\raw\HHS\NPL\SARMD".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Nepal Living Standards Survey. Nepal 1995-1996 , 2003-2004, 2010-11, 2022-2023 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Available from https://worldbank.github.io/SARMD_guidelines/datalibweb-getting-access-to-sarmd.html. Accessed on December 5, 2022, August 27, 2021, and April 3, 2025.

National Population and Housing Census (NPHC) - Raw

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Years: 2011. Access date: December 13, 2021. File location: "data\raw\HHS\NPL\NPHC\2011".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution, and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/54

Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). National Population and Housing Census (NPHC). Nepal 2011 [dataset]. Available from the CBS Microdata Catalog: https://microdata.nsonepal.gov.np/index.php/catalog/54. Accessed on December 13, 2021.

Household Integrated Economic Survey (PAK-HIES) - Raw

Source: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS). Years: 2007-2008, 2010-2011, 2011-2012, 2013-2014, 2015-2016, 2018-2019. Access date: September 10, 2025 (2007-2008, 2010-2011, 2013-2014, 2015-2016, 2018-2019) and July 20, 2021 (2011-2012). File location: "data\raw\HHS\PAK\HIES".

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/microdata_2007_08_stata.zip; https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/data-in-stata-1.zip; https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/data-in-stata.zip; https://www.pbs.gov.pk/hies/ , https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/data_stata_2015-16.zip; https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/data_in_stata.zip

Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS). Household Integrated Economic Survey (PAK-HIES), Pakistan 2007-2008, 2010-2011, 2011-2012, 2013-2014, 2015-2016, 2018-2019 [dataset]. Available from the PBS Microdata Catalog: https://www.pbs.gov.pk/. Accessed on September 10, 2025 and July 20, 2021.

Household Integrated Economic Survey (PAK-HIES) - Harmonized

Source: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS), accessed via South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Years: 2007-2008, 2010-2011, 2011-2012, 2013-2014, 2015-2016, 2018-2019. Access date: April 25, 2022. File location: "data\raw\HHS\PAK\SARMD". File names: PAK_2007_HIES_v02_M_v02_A_SARMD.dta, PAK_2010_HIES_v01_M_v05_A_SARMD.dta, PAK_2011_HIES_v01_M_v05_A_SARMD.dta, PAK_2013_HIES_v01_M_v05_A_SARMD.dta, PAK_2015_HIES_v01_M_v03_A_SARMD.dta, PAK_2018_HIES_v01_M_v01_A_SARMD.dta.

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution, and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS ). Household Integrated Economic Survey (PAK-HIES), Pakistan 2007-2008, 2010-2011, 2011-2012, 2013-2014, 2015-2016, 2018-2019 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Available from: https://worldbank.github.io/SARMD_guidelines/datalibweb-getting-access-to-sarmd.html. Accessed on April 25, 2022.

Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS) - Raw

Source: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS). Years: 1991. Access date: April 28, 2022. File location: "data\raw\HHS\PAK\PIHS\1991".

Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/543

Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS). Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS). Pakistan 1991 [dataset]. Available from the World Bank Microdata Library: https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/543. Accessed on April 28, 2022.

Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) - Raw

Source: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS). Years: 2010-2011, 2012-2013, 2014-2015, 2019-2020. Access date: April 28, 2022 (2010-2011, 2012-2013, 2014-2015) and August 27, 2021 (2019-2020). File location: "data\raw\HHS\PAK\PSLM".

Data is publicly available and included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/data-in-stata-10-11.zip; https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/data-in-spss-12-13.zip; https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Data-in-stata.zip; https://www.pbs.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/stata_data_pslm_2019_20.zip

Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS). Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement, Pakistan 2010-2011, 2012-2013, 2014-2015, 2019-2020 [dataset]. Available from the PBS Microdata Catalog: https://www.pbs.gov.pk/. Accessed on April 28, 2022 and August 27, 2021.

Household Income and Expenditure Survey (LKA-HIES) - Raw

Source: Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). Years: 1990-1991, 1995-1996, 2002, 2006-2007, 2009-2010, 2012-2013, 2016, 2019. Access date: August 27, 2021. File location: "data\raw\HHS\LKA\HIES".

Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/31; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/33; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/38; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/35; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/36; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/37; https://catalog.ihsn.org/catalog/7380/; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/476

Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). Household Income and Expenditure Survey. Sri Lanka 1990-1991, 1995-1996, 2002, 2006-2007, 2009-2010, 2012-2013, 2016, 2019 [dataset]. Available from the DCS Microdata Catalog: https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/, https://catalog.ihsn.org/catalog/7380/. Accessed on August 27, 2021

Household Income and Expenditure Survey (LKA-HIES) - Harmonized

Source: Department of Census and Statistics (DCS), accessed via the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Years: 2002, 2006-2007, 2009-2010, 2012-2013, 2016, 2019. Access date: August 27, 2021 (2002, 2006-2007, 2009-2010, 2012-2013), May 23, 2022 (2016) and March 6, 2025 (2019). File location: "data\raw\HHS\LKA\SARMD".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution, and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Department of Census and Statistics (DCS), Household Income and Expenditure Survey (LKA- HIES), Sri Lanka 2002, 2006-2007, 2009-2010, 2012-2013, 2016, 2019 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the South Asia Regional Micro Database (SARMD). Available from: https://worldbank.github.io/SARMD_guidelines/datalibweb-getting-access-to-sarmd.html. Accessed on August 27, 2021, May 23, 2022 and March 6, 2025.

Labor Force Survey (LKA-LFS) - Raw

Source: Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). Years: 1992-2021. Access date: December 13, 2025. File location: "data\raw\LFS\LKA\LFS".

Data is publicly available but does not allow redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package.

Custom license

https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/453; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/455; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/460; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/474; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/462; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/13; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/14; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/15; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/16; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/17; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/18; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/336; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/22; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/435; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/26; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/27; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/28; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/29; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/441; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/445; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/481; https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/catalog/486

Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). Labor Force Survey (LKA-LFS). Sri Lanka 1992-2021 [dataset]. Available from the DCS Microdata Catalog: https://nada.statistics.gov.lk/index.php/home. Accessed on December 13, 2025.

Labor Force Survey (LKA-LFS) - Harmonized

Source: Department of Census and Statistics (DCS), accessed via the Global Labor Database (GLD). Years: 1992-2021. Access date: January 25, 2026. File location: "data\raw\LFS\LKA\GLD".

Data access was granted directly to the study authors by the data owners/managers. It was obtained with a custom data license that does not allow for redistribution and it is not included in the reproducibility package. Available to World Bank Staff only.

Custom license

Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). Labor Force Survey (LKA-LFS), Sri Lanka 1992-2021 [dataset]. Harmonized version accessed through the Global Labor Database (GLD). Available from https://worldbank.github.io/gld/Support/A%20-%20Guides%20and%20Documentation/GLD%20Manual%20Files/GLD%20content%2C%20storage%2C%20and%20access.html#data-storage-platforms-and-access-rules. Accessed on January 25, 2026.